Muhammad - Knowledge (2024)

1387:); the lack of such a chain for the biographical literature makes it unverifiable in their eyes. The hadiths generally present an idealized view of Muhammad. Western scholars have expressed skepticism regarding the verifiability of these chains of transmission. It is widely believed by Western scholars that there was widespread fabrication of hadith during the early centuries of Islam to support certain theological and legal positions, and it has been suggested that it is "very likely that a considerable number of hadiths that can be found in the hadith collections did not actually originate with the Prophet". In addition, the meaning of a hadith may have drifted from its original telling to when it was finally written down, even if the chain of transmission is authentic. Overall, some Western academics have cautiously viewed the hadith collections as accurate historical sources, while the "dominant paradigm" in Western scholarship is to consider their reliability suspect. Scholars such as3268:

3147:, resulted in actual fighting and capture of booty and prisoners. In March 624, Muhammad led some three hundred warriors in a raid on a Meccan merchant caravan. The Muslims set an ambush for the caravan at Badr. Aware of the plan, the Meccan caravan eluded the Muslims. A Meccan force was sent to protect the caravan and went on to confront the Muslims upon receiving word that the caravan was safe. Due to being outnumbered more than three to one, a spirit of fear ran throughout the Muslim camp; Muhammad tried to boost their morale by telling them he had a dream in which God promised to send 1,000 angels to fight with them. From a tactical standpoint, Muhammad placed troops in front of all of the wells so the Quraysh would have to fight for water, and positioned other troops in such a way that would require the Quraysh to fight uphill while also facing the sun. The4601:

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3328:, Muhammad disclosed that he had received a divine revelation of a planned assassination attempt on him by the Banu Nadir, which involved dropping a boulder from a rooftop. Muhammad then initiated a siege on the tribe; during this time he also commanded the felling and burning of their palm groves, which was an unambiguous symbol of declaring war in Arabia. After a fortnight or so, the Banu Nadir capitulated. They were directed to vacate their land and permitted to carry only one camel-load of goods for every three people. From the spoils, Muhammad claimed a fertile piece of land where barley sprouted amongst palm trees.2123:, who jubilantly exclaimed "Holy! Holy! If you have spoken the truth to me, O Khadijah, there has come to him the great divinity who came to Moses aforetime, and lo, he is the prophet of his people." Khadija instructed Muhammad to let her know if Gabriel returned. When he appeared during their private time, Khadija conducted tests by having Muhammad sit on her left thigh, right thigh, and lap, inquiring Muhammad if the being was still present each time. After Khadija removed her clothes with Muhammad on her lap, he reported that Gabriel left at that moment. Khadija thus told him to rejoice as she concluded it was not4809:, in which he presents the lives of these three "great men", "the greatest legislators of the universe", and compares their careers as religious reformers and lawgivers. He rejects the common view that Muhammad is an impostor and argues that the Quran proffers "the most sublime truths of cult and morals"; it defines the unity of God with an "admirable concision". Pastoret writes that the common accusations of his immorality are unfounded: on the contrary, his law enjoins sobriety, generosity, and compassion on his followers: the "legislator of Arabia" was "a great man".3382:, located to the south of Medina, entered into negotiations with Meccan forces to revolt against Muhammad. Although the Meccan forces were swayed by suggestions that Muhammad was sure to be overwhelmed, they desired reassurance in case the confederacy was unable to destroy him. No agreement was reached after prolonged negotiations, partly due to sabotage attempts by Muhammad's scouts. After the coalition's retreat, the Muslims accused the Banu Qurayza of treachery and besieged them in their forts for 25 days. The Banu Qurayza eventually surrendered; according to2267:. As Muhammad passed by them, they reportedly said hurtful things to him. The same happened when he passed by them a second time. On his third pass, Muhammad stopped and said, "Will you listen to me, O Quraysh? By Him (God), who holds my life in His hand, I bring you slaughter." They fell silent and told him to go home, saying that he was not a violent man. The next day, a number of Quraysh approached him, asking if he had said what they had heard from their companions. He answered yes, and one of them seized him by his cloak.4102:

2134:, a soothsayer, or a magician, suggesting that his experiences during these events bore resemblance to those associated with such figures widely recognized in ancient Arabia. Nonetheless, these enigmatic seizure events might have served as persuasive evidence for his followers regarding the divine origin of his revelations. Some historians posit that the graphic descriptions of Muhammad's condition in these instances are likely genuine, as they are improbable to have been concocted by later Muslims.1123:

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2008:, which had previously consisted only of walls. A complete rebuild was needed to accommodate the new weight. Amid concerns about upsetting the deities, a man stepped forth with a pickaxe and exclaimed, "O goddess! Fear not! Our intentions are only for the best." With that, he began demolishing it. The anxious Meccans awaited divine retribution overnight, but his unharmed continuation the next day was seen as a sign of heavenly approval. According to a narrative collected by2688:

would warn them that a prophet would be sent to punish them. On hearing Muhammad's religious message, they said to each other, "This is the very prophet of whom the Jews warned us. Don't let them get to him before us!" Upon embracing Islam, they returned to Medina and shared their encounter, hoping that by having their people—the Khazraj and the Aws, who had been at odds for so long—accept Islam and adopt Muhammad as their leader, unity could be achieved between them.

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3485:, a man nearing death from an infection in his wounds from the previous Meccan siege. He pronounced that all the men should be put to death, their possessions to be distributed among Muslims, and their women and children to be taken as captives. Muhammad approved this pronouncement saying it aligned with the God's judgement. Consequently, 600–900 men of Banu Qurayza were executed. The women and children were distributed as slaves, with some being transported to26421:

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eyelashes. His hair, black and not entirely curly, hung over his ears. His long, dense beard stood out against his neatly trimmed mustache. His nose was long and aquiline, ending in a fine point. His teeth were well-spaced. His face was described as intelligent, and his clear skin had a line of hair from his neck to his navel. Despite a slight stoop, his stride was brisk and purposeful. Muhammad's lip and cheek were ripped by a slingstone during the

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2496:, prohibiting trade and marriage with them. Nevertheless, Banu Hashim members could still move around the town freely. Despite facing increasing verbal abuse, Muhammad continued to navigate the streets and engage in public debates without being physically harmed. At a later point, a faction within Quraysh, sympathizing with Banu Hashim, initiated efforts to end the sanctions, resulting in a general consensus in 619 to lift the ban.3766:

3218:, which tells the story of a Muslim woman being pranked by a Qaynuqa goldsmith. Regardless of the cause, the Banu Qaynuqa sought refuge in their fort, where Muhammad blockaded them, cutting off their access to food supplies. The Banu Qaynuqa requested help from their Arab allies, but the Arabs refused since they were supporters of Muhammad. After roughly two weeks, the Banu Qaynuqa capitulated without engaging in combat.4229:

3344:, Muhammad's troops executed a surprise attack on them at their watering place, causing them to flee rapidly. In the confrontation, the Muslims lost one man, while the enemy suffered ten casualties. As part of their triumph, the Muslims seized 2,000 camels, 500 sheep and goats, and 200 women from the tribe. The Muslim soldiers desired the captive women, but they also sought ransom money. They asked Muhammad about using2597:

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4463:) and covers a broad array of activities and beliefs ranging from religious rituals, personal hygiene, and burial of the dead to the mystical questions involving the love between humans and God. The Sunnah is considered a model of emulation for pious Muslims and has to a great degree influenced the Muslim culture. The greeting that Muhammad taught Muslims to offer each other, "may peace be upon you" (Arabic:2633:, holy enclosure in Mecca, is widely accepted as the starting point, but there is disagreement among Islamic traditions as to what constitutes "the farthest place of worship". Some modern scholars maintain that the earliest tradition saw this faraway site as a celestial twin of the Kaaba, so that Muhammad's journey took him directly from Mecca through the heavens. A later tradition, however, refers to it as26431:

4665:, these were essentially "printed manuscripts". Today, millions of historical reproductions and modern images are available in some Muslim-majority countries, especially Turkey and Iran, on posters, postcards, and even in coffee-table books, but are unknown in most other parts of the Islamic world, and when encountered by Muslims from other countries, they can cause considerable consternation and offense.1321:

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3663:, a Jewish woman whose father, uncle, and husband had been killed by the Muslims. When asked why she did it, she replied, "You know what you've done to my people... I said to myself: If he is truly a prophet, he will know about the poison. If he's merely a king, I'll be rid of him." Muhammad suffered illness for a period due to the poison he ingested, and he endured sporadic pain from it until his death.1892:, unsuccessfully attempted to conquer Mecca. Recent studies, however, challenge this notion, as other evidence suggests that the expedition, if it had occurred, would have transpired substantially before Muhammad's birth. Later Muslim scholars presumably linked Abraha's renowned name to the narrative of Muhammad's birth to elucidate the unclear passage about "the men of elephants" in Quran 105:1–5.2708:, which basically means "severing of kinship ties." The departures spanned approximately three months. To avoid arriving in Medina by himself with his followers remaining in Mecca, Muhammad chose not to go ahead and instead stayed back to watch over them and persuade those who were reluctant. Some were held back by their families from leaving, but in the end, there were no Muslims left in Mecca.2158:

rejected Muhammad's God and alluded to past and future calamities. The verses also stressed the imminent final judgment and the threat of hellfire for skeptics. Due to the complexity of the experience, Muhammad was initially very reluctant to tell others about his revelations; at first, he confided in only a few select family members and friends. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad's wife

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2119:. By the time he got to her, he was already crawling on his hands and knees, shaking wildly and crying "Cover me!", as he thrusted himself onto her lap. Khadijah wrapped him in a cloak and tucked him in her arms until his fears dissipated. She had absolutely no doubts about his revelation; she insisted it was real and not a jinn. Muhammad was also reassured by Khadija's Christian cousin3716:, had allied with the Meccans. A clan of the Bakr made a night raid against the Khuza'a, killing a few of them. The Meccans helped the Banu Bakr with weapons and, according to some sources, a few Meccans also took part in the fighting. After this event, Muhammad sent a message to Mecca with three conditions, asking them to accept one of them. These were: either the Meccans would pay3638:, to whom the treasure of Banu al-Nadir was entrusted, denied knowing its whereabouts. After a Jew disclosed his habitual presence around a particular ruin, Muhammad ordered excavations, and the treasure was found. When questioned about the remaining wealth, Kenana refused to divulge it. Kinana was then put through torture by Muhammad's decree and subsequently beheaded by3155:. Seventy prisoners had been acquired, many of whom were ransomed. Muhammad and his followers saw the victory as confirmation of their faith and Muhammad ascribed the victory to the assistance of an invisible host of angels. The Quranic verses of this period, unlike the Meccan verses, dealt with practical problems of government and issues like the distribution of spoils.1306:

cases, may have been subject only to "tendential shaping". Other scholars have criticized the reliability of this method, suggesting that one cannot neatly divide traditions into purely legal and historical categories. Western historians describe the purpose of these early biographies as largely to convey a message, rather than to strictly and accurately record history.

2582:. Mut'im agreed, and after equipping himself, he rode out in the morning with his sons and nephews to accompany Muhammad to the city. When Abu Jahl saw him, he asked if Mut'im was simply giving him protection or if he had already converted to his religion. Mut'im replied, "Granting him protection, of course." Then Abu Jahl said, "We will protect whomever you protect."774:

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2485:, which claimed that Muhammad was infallible and thus could not be fooled by Satan, the historical memory of the early community has been reevaluated. As of the 20th century CE, Muslim scholars unanimously rejected this incident. On the other hand, most European biographers of Muhammad recognize the veracity of this incident of satanic verses on the basis of the3627:. With the prospect of rich spoils from the mission, numerous volunteers answered his call. To keep their movements hidden, the Muslim military chose to march during the nighttime. As dawn arrived and the city folks stepped out of their fortifications to harvest their dates, they were taken aback by the sight of the advancing Muslim forces. Muhammad cried out, "4683:, religion for Muhammad was not a private and individual matter but "the total response of his personality to the total situation in which he found himself. He was responding [not only]... to the religious and intellectual aspects of the situation but also to the economic, social, and political pressures to which contemporary Mecca was subject."4849:'s admiration for Islam as an aesthetic product, enviably authentic, radiantly holistic, played such a central role in his view of Mohammed as an exemplary world-fashioner that he even used it as a scale of judgement for the classical (the dithyramb, we are told, has to radiate pure beauty if it is to resemble 'a Koran of poetry')". After quoting1966:, a wealthy businesswoman who had staked out a successful career as a merchant in the caravan trade industry. She asked him to take one of her caravans into Syria, after which she was so impressed by his competence in the expedition that she proposed marriage to him; Muhammad accepted her offer and remained monogamous with her until her death.2780:). Tree trunks were used as pillars to hold up the roof, and there was no fancy pulpit; instead, Muhammad stood on top of a small stool to speak to the congregation. The structure was completed after about seven months in April 623, becoming the first Muslim building and mosque; its northern wall had a stone marking the direction of prayer (3469:. As the situation turned against the Qurayza, the tribe proposed to leave their land with one loaded camel each, but Muhammad refused. They then offered to leave without taking anything, but this was rejected as well, with Muhammad insisting on their unconditional surrender. The Qurayza subsequently requested to confer with one of their2016:, a dispute arose over which clan should have the privilege. It was determined that the first person to step into the Kaaba's court would arbitrate. Muhammad took on this role, asking for a cloak. He placed the stone on it, guiding clan representatives to jointly elevate it to its position. He then personally secured it within the wall.2243:, such as bringing forth springs of water, yet he declined, reasoning that the regularities of nature already served as sufficient proof of God's majesty. Some satirized his lack of success by wondering why God had not bestowed treasure upon him. Others called on him to visit Paradise and return with tangible parchment scrolls of the2363:. As for the third query, concerning the nature of the spirit, the Qur'anic revelation asserted that it was beyond human comprehension. Neither the Jews who devised the questions nor the Quraysh who posed them to Muhammad converted to Islam upon receiving the answers. Nadr and Uqba were later executed on Muhammad's orders after the5206:, writing for the Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World: "The Prophet of Islam was a religious, political, and social reformer who gave rise to one of the great civilizations of the world. From a modern, historical perspective, Muḥammad was the founder of Islam. From the perspective of the Islamic faith, he was God's Messenger (2855:

a treaty or a unilateral proclamation by Muhammad, the number of documents it comprised, the primary parties, the specific timing of its creation (or that of its constituent parts), whether it was drafted before or after Muhammad's removal of the three leading Jewish tribes of Medina, and the proper approach to translating it.

4353:. According to a BBC summary, "the Prophet Muhammad did not try to abolish slavery, and bought, sold, captured, and owned slaves himself. But he insisted that slave owners treat their slaves well and stressed the virtue of freeing slaves. Muhammad treated slaves as human beings and clearly held some in the highest esteem".3893:. He also reaffirmed that husbands had the right to discipline and strike their wives without excessive force if they were unfaithful or misbehaved. He explained that wives were entrusted to their husbands and, if obedient, deserved to be provided with food and clothing, as they were gifts from God for personal enjoyment.2299:"By God, we can no longer endure this vilification of our forefathers, this derision of our traditional values, this abuse of our gods. Either you stop Muhammad yourself, Abu Talib, or you must let us stop him. Since you yourself take the same position as we do, in opposition to what he’s saying, we will rid you of him."5259:, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20: "Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other; These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for." (Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans). cf Ibn Ishaq, A. Guillaume p. 166.4627:, typically in literary genres describing the life and deeds of Muhammad. During the Ilkhanid period, when Persia's Mongol rulers converted to Islam, competing Sunni and Shi'a groups used visual imagery, including images of Muhammad, to promote their particular interpretation of Islam's key events. Influenced by the3579:'s second cousin, to negotiate with the Quraysh. As the negotiations were prolonged, rumors of Uthman's death began to spark, prompting Muhammad to call his followers to renew their oaths of loyalty. Uthman returned with news of a negotiation impasse. Muhammad remained persistent. In the end, the Quraysh sent3813:. Several motives are proposed, including avenging the defeat at Mu'tah and earning vast booty. Because of the drought and severe heat at that time, some of the Muslims refrained from participating. This led to the revelation of Quran 9:38 which rebuked those slackers. When Muhammad and his army reached3378:. The siege of Medina began on 31 March 627 and lasted two weeks. Abu Sufyan's troops were unprepared for the fortifications, and after an ineffectual siege, the coalition decided to return home. The Quran discusses this battle in sura Al-Ahzab, in verses 33:9–27. During the battle, the Jewish tribe of4631:

tradition of representational religious art predating the Mongol elite's conversion, this innovation was unprecedented in the Islamic world, and accompanied by a "broader shift in Islamic artistic culture away from abstraction toward representation" in "mosques, on tapestries, silks, ceramics, and in

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In the siege of Medina, the Meccans exerted the available strength to destroy the Muslim community. The failure resulted in a significant loss of prestige; their trade with Syria vanished. Following the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad made two expeditions to the north, both ended without any fighting.

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and some of Muhammad's daughters, since it was considered shameful to kill a man in front of the women in his family. They instead chose to wait until Muhammad left the house the next morning; one of the men peeked into a window and saw what he believed to be Muhammad (but was actually Ali dressed in

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Muhammad was confident that he could distinguish his own thoughts from these messages. The early Quranic revelations utilized approaches of cautioning non-believers with divine punishment, while promising rewards to believers. They conveyed potential consequences like famine and killing for those who

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During the 632 pilgrimage season, Muhammad personally led the ceremonies and gave a sermon. Among the key points highlighted are said to have been the prohibition of usury and vendettas related to past murders from the pre-Islamic era; the brotherhood of all Muslims; and the adoption of twelve lunar

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offered their help, which Muhammad declined. Despite being outnumbered, the Muslims initially held their ground but lost advantage when some archers disobeyed orders. As rumors of Muhammad's death spread, the Muslims started to flee, but he had only been injured and managed to escape with a group of

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or corroboration. The appellation is generally deemed imprecise, as the text neither established a state nor enacted Quranic statutes, but rather addressed tribal matters. While scholars from both the West and the Muslim world agree on the text's authenticity, disagreements persist on whether it was

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wished to send a prophet, couldn't He have found a better person than you, a weak and fatherless orphan?" Realizing his efforts were in vain, Muhammad asked the people of Ta'if to keep the matter a secret, fearing that this would embolden the hostility of the Quraysh against him. However, instead of

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Abu Talib politely dismissed them at first, thinking it was just a heated talk. But as Muhammad grew more vocal, Abu Talib requested Muhammad to not burden him beyond what he could bear, to which Muhammad wept and replied that he would not stop even if they put the sun in his right hand and the moon

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Shortly after Waraqa's death, the revelations ceased for a period, causing Muhammad great distress and thoughts of suicide. On one occasion, he reportedly climbed a mountain intending to jump off. However, upon reaching the peak, Gabriel appeared to him, affirming his status as the true Messenger of

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When he divided the plentiful loot acquired at Hunayn among his soldiers, the rest of the Hawazin converted to Islam and implored Muhammad to release their children and women, reminding him that he had been nursed by some of those women when he was a baby. He complied but held on to the rest of the

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offered his services, explaining that the task would require deception. Muhammad did not contest this. He then gathered accomplices, including Ka'b's foster brother, Abu Naila. They pretended to complain about their post-conversion hardships, persuading Ka'b to lend them food. On the night of their

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and staunch critic of Muhammad, had just returned from Mecca after producing poetry that mourned the death of the Quraysh at Badr and aroused them to retaliate. When Muhammad learned of this incitement against the Muslims, he asked his followers, "Who is ready to kill Ka'b, who has hurt God and His

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Permission has been given to those who are being fought, because they were wronged. And indeed, Allah is competent to give them victory. Those who have been evicted from their homes without right—only because they say, "Our Lord is Allah." And were it not that Allah checks the people, some by means

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to join them on their return to Medina to promote Islam. Come June 622, a significant clandestine meeting was convened, again at Aqaba. In this gathering, seventy-five individuals from Yathrib (Medina) attended, including two women, representing all the converts of the oases. Muhammad asked them to

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As resistance to his proselytism in Mecca grew, Muhammad began to limit his efforts to non-Meccans who attended fairs or made pilgrimages. During this period, Muhammad had an encounter with six individuals from the Banu Khazraj. These men had a history of raiding Jews in their locality, who in turn

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dismiss the idea that Muhammad deliberately deceived his followers, arguing that Muhammad "was absolutely sincere and acted in complete good faith" and Muhammad's readiness to endure hardship for his cause, with what seemed to be no rational basis for hope, shows his sincerity. Watt, however, says

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Muhammad began to prepare for a campaign. In 630, Muhammad marched on Mecca with 10,000 Muslim converts. With minimal casualties, Muhammad seized control of Mecca. He declared an amnesty for past offences, except for ten men and women who were "guilty of murder or other offences or had sparked off

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chieftain who had been aided by the Qaynuqa in the past encouraged Muhammad to show leniency. In a narrated incident, Muhammad turned away from Ibn Ubayy, but undeterred, the chieftain grasped Muhammad's cloak, and refused to let go until Muhammad agreed to treat the tribe leniently. Despite being

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at that time. Muhammad used the building to host public and political meetings, as well as a place for the poor to gather to receive alms, food, and care. Christians and Jews were also allowed to participate in community worship at the mosque. Initially, Muhammad's religion had no organized way to

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included only the story of Muhammad's ascension from the sanctuary in Mecca to "the earthly heaven". Tabari placed this story at the beginning of Muhammad's public ministry, between his account of Khadija becoming "the first to believe in the Messenger of God" and his account of "the first male to

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for his methods, in particular his decision to omit his sources. Recent studies have led scholars to distinguish between traditions touching legal matters and purely historical events. In the legal group, traditions could have been subject to invention while historic events, aside from exceptional

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Islam (1%) than among Shias (10%–15%). While both Sunnis and Shias have created images of Muhammad in the past, Islamic depictions of Muhammad are rare. They have mostly been limited to the private and elite medium of the miniature, and since about 1500 most depictions show Muhammad with his face

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on it and instructed him to read. When Muhammad confessed his illiteracy, Gabriel choked him forcefully, nearly suffocating him, and repeated the command. As Muhammad reiterated his inability to read, Gabriel choked him again in a similar manner. This sequence took place once more before Gabriel

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Various sources present a probable description of Muhammad in the prime of his life. He was slightly above average in height, with a sturdy frame and wide chest. His neck was long, bearing a large head with a broad forehead. His eyes were described as dark and intense, accentuated by long, dark

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put upon his tongue two short verses: "These are the high flying ones / whose intercession is to be hoped for." This led to a general reconciliation between Muhammad and the Meccans, and the Muslims in Abyssinia began to return home. However, the next day, Muhammad retracted these verses at the

2405:, and her husband. The Quraysh then sent two men to retrieve them. Because leatherwork at the time was highly prized in Abyssinia, they gathered a lot of skins and transported them there so they could distribute some to each of the kingdom's generals. But the king firmly rejected their request.3777:

gathered their entire tribe, including their families, to fight. They are estimated to have around 4,000 warriors. Muhammad led 12,000 soldiers to raid them, but they surprised him at Wadi Hunayn. The Muslims overpowered them and took their women, children and animals. Muhammad then turned his

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regarding Muhammad. The rabbis advised them to ask Muhammad three questions: recount the tale of young men who ventured forth in the first age; narrate the story of a traveler who reached both the eastern and western ends of the earth; and provide details about the spirit. If Muhammad answered

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of the 'Amr b. 'Awf tribe, had composed verses taunting and insulting the Muslims. They were killed by people belonging to their own or related clans, and Muhammad did not disapprove of the killings. This report, however, is considered by some to be a fabrication. Most members of those tribes

1951:, who is said to have then foretold his prophethood. There are multiple versions of the story with details that contradict each other. All accounts of Bahira and his meeting with Muhammad have been considered fictitious by modern historians as well as by some medieval Muslim scholars such as3649:

Following their defeat by the Muslims, some of the Jews proposed to Muhammad that they stay and serve as tenant farmers, given the Muslims' lack of expertise and labor force for date palm cultivation. They agreed to give half of the annual produce to the Muslims. Muhammad consented to this

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took power in the early 16th century. The Safavaids, who made Shi'i Islam the state religion, initiated a departure from the traditional Ilkhanid and Timurid artistic style by covering Muhammad's face with a veil to obscure his features and at the same time represent his luminous essence.

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have disputed the accuracy of Ibn Ishaq's narrative. Arafat believes that Ibn Ishaq's Jewish sources, speaking over 100 years after the event, conflated this account with memories of earlier massacres in Jewish history; he notes that Ibn Ishaq was considered an unreliable historian by his

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The historical record of Mecca during Muhammad's early life is limited and fragmentary, making it difficult to distinguish between fact and legend. Several Islamic narratives relate that Muhammad, as a child, went on a trading trip to Syria with his uncle Abu Talib and met a monk named

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to prevent pregnancy, to which Muhammad replied, "You are not under any obligation to forbear from that..." Later, envoys arrived in Medina to negotiate the ransom for the women and children. Despite having the choice, all of them chose to return to their country instead of staying.

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and discussed how they had never faced such serious problems as they were facing from Muhammad. They said that he had derided their culture, denigrated their ancestors, scorned their faith, shattered their community, and cursed their gods. Sometime later, Muhammad came, kissing the

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which was published posthumously in 1730, described Muhammad as a gifted political leader and a just lawmaker. He presents him as a divinely inspired messenger whom God employed to confound the bickering Oriental Christians, to liberate the Orient from the despotic rule of the

4994:, who were seeking for the inner meaning of the Quran and the inner nature of Muhammad, viewed the prophet of Islam not only as a prophet but also as a perfect human being. All Sufi orders trace their chain of spiritual descent back to Muhammad. Some notable Sufis, such as4592:, and instead decorate mosques with calligraphy, Quranic inscriptions, or geometrical designs. Today, the interdiction against images of Muhammad—designed to prevent worship of Muhammad, rather than God—is much more strictly observed in Sunni Islam (85%–90% of Muslims) and4334:

Nine of Muhammad's wives survived him. Aisha, who became known as Muhammad's favorite wife in Sunni tradition, survived him by decades and was instrumental in helping assemble the scattered sayings of Muhammad that form the Hadith literature for the Sunni branch of Islam.

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immediately sent an envoy to Muhammad and agreed to the same terms of relinquishing 50% of their annual harvest. However, since no combat occurred, the rank and file had no claim to a portion of the spoils. Consequently, all the loot became Muhammad's exclusive wealth.

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spoke for them, Muhammad refrained from executing them and commanded that they be exiled from Medina. Following the Battle of Badr, Muhammad also made mutual-aid alliances with a number of Bedouin tribes to protect his community from attacks from the northern part of

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in Medina, Muhammad received revelations from God that he should be facing Mecca rather than Jerusalem during prayer. Muhammad adjusted to the new direction, and his companions praying with him followed his lead, beginning the tradition of facing Mecca during prayer.

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written by Muhammad. In the constitution, Medina's Arab and Jewish tribes promised to live peacefully alongside the Muslims and to refrain from making a separate treaty with Mecca. It also guaranteed the Jews freedom of religion. In the agreement, everyone under its

3309:. Mass casualties suffered by the Muslims in the Battle of Uhud resulted in many wives and daughters being left without a male protector, so after the battle, Muhammad received revelation allowing Muslim men to have up to four wives each, marking the beginning of2174:. As word of Muhammad's revelations continued to spread throughout the rest of his family, they became increasingly divided on the matter, with the youth and women generally believing in him, while most of the men in the elder generations were staunchly opposed.2732:

Muhammad's cloak), though unbeknownst to them, Muhammad had previously escaped from the back of the residence. When Ali went outside to go for a walk the following morning, the men realized they had been fooled, and the Quraysh consequently offered a 100-camel

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mustered a force of 10,000 men. Muhammad prepared a force of about 3,000 men and adopted a form of defense unknown in Arabia at that time; the Muslims dug a trench wherever Medina lay open to cavalry attack. The idea is credited to a Persian convert to Islam,

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arrangement with the caveat that he could displace them at any time. While they were allowed to farm, he demanded the surrender of all gold or silver, executing those who secreted away their wealth. Taking a cue from what transpired in Khaybar, the Jews in

2464:, claiming that they had been cast by Satan to his tongue and God had abrogated them. Instead, verses that revile those goddesses were then revealed. The returning Muslims thus had to make arrangements for clan protection before they could re-enter Mecca.2436:, the episodes were more complex than the traditional accounts suggest; he proposes that there were divisions within the embryonic Muslim community, and that they likely went there to trade in competition with the prominent merchant families of Mecca. In1962:. But likely owing to his poverty, his proposal was rejected by her father, Abu Talib, who chose a more illustrious suitor. When Muhammad was 25, his fortunes turned around; his business reputation caught the attention of his 40-year-old distant relative2537:

to try to establish himself in the city and gain aid and protection against the Meccans, but he was met with a response: "If you are truly a prophet, what need do you have of our help? If God sent you as his messenger, why doesn't He protect you? And if

2196:. These converts keenly awaited each new revelation from Muhammad; when he recited it, they all would repeat after him and memorize it, and the literate ones recorded it in writing. Muhammad also introduced rituals to his group which included prayer (3296:, they assembled an army to oppose Muhammad. Upon being alerted by his scout about the impending threat, Muhammad convened a war council. Initially, he considered defending from the city center, but later decided to meet the enemy in open battle at3158:

The victory strengthened Muhammad's position in Medina and dispelled earlier doubts among his followers. As a result, the opposition to him became less vocal. Pagans who had not yet converted were very bitter about the advance of Islam. Two pagans,

2343:

and asked Muhammad the questions, he told them he would provide the answers the next day. However, 15 days passed without a response from his God, leading to gossip among the Meccans and causing Muhammad distress. At some point later, the angel

4271:

who was 40 years old. The marriage lasted for 25years and was a happy one. Muhammad did not enter into marriage with another woman during this marriage. After Khadijah's death, Khawla bint Hakim suggested to Muhammad that he should marry

4526:) to the worlds". The association of rain with mercy in Oriental countries has led to imagining Muhammad as a rain cloud dispensing blessings and stretching over lands, reviving the dead hearts, just as rain revives the seemingly dead earth.3458:. Abu Sufyan refused their requirement. Nevertheless, later accounts claim that 11 Jewish individuals from the Qurayza were indeed agitated and acted against Muhammad, though the course of event may have been dramatized within the tradition.3806:, who had fought bravely in the battle, but received close to nothing, were unhappy with this. One of them remarked, "It is not with such gifts that one seeks God's face." Disturbed by this utterance, Muhammad retorted, "He changed color."4295:

Muhammad performed household chores such as preparing food, sewing clothes, and repairing shoes. He is also said to have had accustomed his wives to dialogue; he listened to their advice, and the wives debated and even argued with him.

1821:

tribe, which was a dominant force in western Arabia. While his clan was one of the more distinguished in the tribe, it seems to have experienced a lack of prosperity during his early years. According to Muslim tradition, Muhammad was a

1867:) when he was young; however, historians differ as to whether it was given by people as a reflection of his nature or was simply a given name from his parents, i.e., a masculine form of his mother's name "Amina". Muhammad acquired the1272:. However, Ibn Hisham wrote in the preface to his biography of Muhammad that he omitted matters from Ibn Ishaq's biography that "would distress certain people". Another early historical source is the history of Muhammad's campaigns by4292:. Muhammad is said to have asked for arrangements to marry both. According to classical sources, Muhammad married Aisha when she was 6–7 years old; the marriage was consummated later, when she was 9 years old and he was 53 years old.3480:

After a 25-day siege, the Banu Qurayza surrendered. The Muslims of Banu Aws entreated Muhammad for leniency, prompting him to suggest that one of their own should serve as the judge, which they accepted. Muhammad assigned the role to

11428:

3981:

3453:

incited the Qurayza to attack the Muslims from their compound, but the Qurayza demanded the Quraysh to provide 70 hostages from among themselves to ascertain their commitment to their plans, as proposed by Muhammad's secret agent

2767:

A few days after settling in Medina, Muhammad negotiated for the purchase of a piece of land; upon this plot, the Muslims began constructing a building that would become Muhammad's residence as well as a community gathering place

2797:) like the Jews or a wooden clapper like the Christians, but one of the Muslims in the community had a dream where a man in a green cloak told him that someone with a loud booming voice should announce the service by crying out "2489:. Historian Alfred T. Welch proposes that the period of Muhammad's turning away from strict monotheism was likely far longer but was later encapsulated in a story that made it much shorter and implicated Satan as the culprit.2278:

attempted to entice Muhammad to quit preaching by giving him admission to the merchants' inner circle as well as an advantageous marriage, but he refused both of the offers. A delegation of them then, led by the leader of the

3658:

At the feast following the battle, the meal served to Muhammad was reportedly poisoned. His companion, Bishr, fell dead after consuming it, while Muhammad himself managed to vomit it out after tasting it. The perpetrator was

2154:

God. This encounter soothed Muhammad, and he returned home. Later, when there was another long break between revelations, he repeated this action, but Gabriel intervened similarly, calming him and causing him to return home.

3782:, a city that was famous for its vineyards and gardens. He ordered them to be destroyed and besieged the city, which was surrounded by walls. After 15–20 days of failing to breach their defenses, he abandoned the attempts.4687:

says there are two important political traditions in Islam—Muhammad as a statesman in Medina, and Muhammad as a rebel in Mecca. In his view, Islam is a great change, akin to a revolution, when introduced to new societies.

3415:, Muhammad's wife. Aisha was exonerated from accusations when Muhammad announced he had received a revelation confirming Aisha's innocence and directing that charges of adultery be supported by four eyewitnesses (sura 24,4070:

retook—and this time managed to keep—the city. In the Wahhabi interpretation of Islam, burial is to take place in unmarked graves. Although the practice is frowned upon by the Saudis, many pilgrims continue to practice a

2691:

The next year, five of the earlier converts revisited Muhammad, bringing with them seven newcomers, three of whom were from the Banu Aws. At Aqaba, near Mecca, they pledged their loyalty to him. Muhammad then entrusted

5268:"Apart from this one-day lapse, which was excised from the text, the Quran is simply unrelenting, unaccommodating and outright despising of paganism." (The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad, Jonathan E. Brockopp, p. 35).1080:) that Muhammad reported receiving until his death form the verses of the Quran, regarded by Muslims as the verbatim "Word of God" on which the religion is based. Besides the Quran, Muhammad's teachings and practices (3477:. When asked about Muhammad's intentions, he gestured towards his throat, indicating an imminent massacre. He immediately regretted his indiscretion and tied himself to one of the Mosque pillars as a form of penance.2547:, a Meccan chief with a summer residence in Ta'if. Muhammad felt despair due to the unexpected rejection and hostility he received in the city; at this point, he realized he had no security or protection except from3828:

The Hawazin's acceptance of Islam resulted in Taif losing its last major ally. After enduring a year of unrelenting thefts and terror attacks from the Muslims following the siege, the people of Taif, known as the

4390:. Islamic belief is that ideally the Shahadah is the first words a newborn will hear; children are taught it immediately and it will be recited upon death. Muslims repeat the shahadah in the call to prayer (4066:, Saud's followers, destroyed nearly every tomb dome in Medina in order to prevent their veneration, and the one of Muhammad is reported to have narrowly escaped. Similar events took place in 1925, when the3786:

plunder. Some of his men opposed giving away their portions, so he compensated them with six camels each from subsequent raids. Muhammad distributed a big portion of the booty to the new converts from the

11532:

18185:

3631:! Khaybar is destroyed. For when we approach a people's land, a terrible morning awaits the warned ones." After a strenuous battle lasting more than a month, the Muslims successfully captured the city.9958:

Quraysh had put pictures in the Ka'ba including two of Jesus son of Mary and Mary (on both of whom be peace!). ... The apostle ordered that the pictures should be erased except those of Jesus and Mary.

2637:, which is generally associated with Jerusalem. Over time, these different traditions merged to present the journey as one that began in Mecca, passed through Jerusalem, and then ascended to heaven.6145:

Things which it is disgraceful to discuss; matters which would distress certain people; and such reports as I have been told are not to be accepted as trustworthy – all these things have I omitted.

3924:

After praying at the burial site in June 632, Muhammad suffered a dreadful headache that made him cry in pain. He continued to spend the night with each of his wives one by one, but he fainted in

26335:

2562:, and he said, "They did not allow him to enter Ta'if, so let us deny him entry to Mecca as well." Knowing the gravity of the situation, Muhammad asked a passing horseman to deliver a message to1179:

to Muhammad. The Quran is mainly addressed to a single "Messenger of God" who is referred to as Muhammad in a number of verses. The Quranic text also describes the settlement of his followers in

971:, died around the time Muhammad was born. His mother Amina died when he was six, leaving Muhammad an orphan. He was raised under the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, and paternal uncle,11333:

4469:) is used by Muslims throughout the world. Many details of major Islamic rituals such as daily prayers, the fasting and the annual pilgrimage are only found in the Sunnah and not the Quran.3590:

If a Quraysh*te came to Muhammad's side without his guardian's allowance, he was to be returned to the Quraysh; yet, if a Muslim came to the Quraysh, he would not be surrendered to Muhammad.

11410:

13898:

The Life of Mahomet and History of Islam to the Era of the Hegira: With Introductory Chapters on the Original Sources for the Biography of Mahomet and on the Pre-Islamite History of Arabia

4552:. In casual writing, the abbreviations SAW (for the Arabic phrase) or PBUH (for the English phrase) are sometimes used; in printed matter, a small calligraphic rendition is commonly used (26355:

2555:

stopped by and offered grapes, which Muhammad accepted. By the end of the encounter, Addas felt overwhelmed and kissed Muhammad's head, hands, and feet in recognition of his prophethood.

6381:

of Mālik b. Anas (d. 179/796). Later ḥadīth compendia often included other collections as well. None of these books, however, has enjoyed the esteem of al-Bukhārīʼs and Muslimʼs works.

3100:

Following the emigration, the people of Mecca seized property of Muslim emigrants to Medina. War would later break out between the people of Mecca and the Muslims. Muhammad delivered

1190:

The Quran, however, provides minimal assistance for Muhammad's chronological biography; most Quranic verses do not provide significant historical context and timeline. Almost none of

1383:

Muslim scholars have typically placed a greater emphasis on the hadith literature instead of the biographical literature, since hadiths maintain a traditional chain of transmission (

4827:

be in earnest". Carlyle's interpretation has been widely cited by Muslim scholars as a demonstration that Western scholarship validates Muhammad's status as a great man in history.

4507:

Muslims have traditionally expressed love and veneration for Muhammad. Stories of Muhammad's life, his intercession and of his miracles have permeated popular Muslim thought and

2475:

and documented by nearly all of the major biographers of Muhammad in Islam's first two centuries, which according to them corresponds to Quran 22:52. But since the rise of the

4853:, who said in a letter to some friend that "I must admit that you, the great prophet of Mecca, are the greatest poet and that your Quran... will not easily escape my memory",26345:

26340:

25634:

4170:

between the two had devastated the region, making the empires unpopular amongst local tribes. Furthermore, in the lands that would be conquered by Muslims, many Christians (

3230:

angered by the incident, Muhammad spared the Qaynuqa, stipulating that they must depart Medina within three days and relinquish their property to the Muslims, with a fifth (

2740:

for Medina, which at the time was still named Yathrib; the two men arrived in Medina on 4 September 622. The Meccan Muslims who undertook the migration were then called the

1348:

collections, accounts of verbal and physical teachings and traditions attributed to Muhammad. Hadiths were compiled several generations after his death by Muslims including

4139:. This choice was disputed by some of Muhammad's companions, who held that Ali ibn Abi Talib, his cousin and son-in-law, had been designated the successor by Muhammad at3206:, regarded as the weakest and wealthiest of Medina's three main Jewish tribes. Muslim sources provide different reasons for the siege, including an altercation involving1194:

are mentioned by name in the Quran, hence not providing sufficient information for a concise biography. The Quran is considered to be contemporary with Muhammad, and the

25620:

16898:

3885:

On February 631, Muhammad received a revelation granting idolaters four months of grace, after which the Muslims would attack, kill, and plunder them wherever they met.

3151:

commenced, and the Muslims ultimately won, killing at least forty-five Meccans with fourteen Muslims dead. They also succeeded in killing many Meccan leaders, including

2900:

3399:. Ahmad argues that only some of the tribe were killed, while some of the fighters were merely enslaved. Watt finds Arafat's arguments "not entirely convincing", while2566:, a member of his mother's clan, requesting his protection so that he could enter in safety. But Akhnas declined, saying that he was only a confederate of the house of149:

4538:-dominated Saudi Arabia where these public celebrations are discouraged. When Muslims say or write the name of Muhammad, they usually follow it with the Arabic phrase2518:, also died. Despite Muhammad's persuasions to Abu Talib to embrace Islam on his deathbed, he clung to his polytheistic beliefs until the end. Muhammad's other uncle,3956:, Muhammad said that he felt his aorta being severed because of the food he ate at Khaybar. On 8 June 632, Muhammad died. In his last moments, he reportedly uttered:2351:

In response to the first query, the Qur'an tells a story about a group of men sleeping in a cave (Qur'an 18:9–25), which scholars generally link to the legend of the

4801:(1762), "brushing aside hostile legends of Muhammad as a trickster and impostor, presents him as a sage legislator who wisely fused religious and political powers".21687:

5189:, p.63, gives 8 June 632 CE, the dominant Islamic tradition. Many earlier (primarily non-Islamic) traditions refer to him as still alive at the time of the4151:) forces because of the previous defeat, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an event that Muslim historians later referred to as the2626:, while Mi'raj is from Jerusalem to the heavens. There is considered no substantial basis for the Mi'raj in the Quran, as the Quran does not address it directly.21569:

3948:. He replied that God would not afflict him with such a vile disease, and ordered all the women to also take the remedy. According to various sources, including2451:

Along with many others, Tabari recorded that Muhammad was desperate, hoping for an accommodation with his tribe. So, while he was in the presence of a number of

1243:(around the 8th and 9th century CE respectively). These include traditional Muslim biographies of Muhammad, which provide additional information about his life.2304:

in his left. When he turned around, Abu Talib called him and said, "Come back nephew, say what you please, for by God I will never give you up on any account."

20954:

3769:

Conquests of Muhammad (green lines) and the Rashidun caliphs (black lines). Shown: Byzantine empire (North and West) & Sassanid-Persian empire (Northeast).

4323:, who both died in childhood). All but one of his daughters, Fatimah, died before him. Some Shi'a scholars contend that Fatimah was Muhammad's only daughter.26330:

23096:

1563:, the "Mountain of Light" near Mecca. At age 40, Angel Jebreel (Gabriel) was said to appear to Muhammad on the mountain and call him "the Prophet of Allah"4787:

he vilifies Muhammad as a symbol of fanaticism, and in an essay in 1748 he calls him "a sublime and hearty charlatan". But in Voltaire's historical survey

1777:

7004:"From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of the Prophet Muhammad's Portrayal from 13th Century Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th Century Ottoman Art"3731:

the war and disrupted the peace". Some of these were later pardoned. Most Meccans converted to Islam and Muhammad proceeded to destroy all the statues of

21554:

16921:

13235:

4881:

that sincerity does not directly imply correctness: in contemporary terms, Muhammad might have mistaken his subconscious for divine revelation. Watt and

4819:

3324:, and they agreed to his request. However, while waiting, he departed from his companions and disappeared. When they found him at his home, according to14112:

2090:, this time seeing a mighty being that engulfed the horizon and stared back at Muhammad even when he turned to face a different direction. This was the1911:

to illness and became an orphan. For the next two years, until he was eight years old, Muhammad was under the guardianship of his paternal grandfather,

25655:

3593:

Any tribes interested in forming alliances with Muhammad or the Quraysh were free to do so. These alliances were also protected by the ten-year truce.

2838:

was required to defend and protect the oasis if attacked. Politically, the agreement helped Muhammad better understand which people were on his side.

25188:

6003:

2543:

accepting his request, they pelted him with stones, injuring his limbs. He eventually evaded this chaos and persecution by escaping to the garden of

25437:

25235:

21653:

11343:

10971:

4756:

was among the first to present a more positive view of Muhammad when he argued that Muhammad should be esteemed by Christians as a valid prophet.

3132:

in which the name of Allah is much mentioned. And Allah will surely support those who support Him. Indeed, Allah is Powerful and Exalted in Might.

16891:

16083:

2893:

2317:

2130:

Muhammad's demeanor during his moments of inspiration frequently led to allegations from his contemporaries that he was under the influence of a

4990:

The Sunnah contributed much to the development of Islamic law, particularly from the end of the first Islamic century. Muslim mystics, known as

26493:

23342:

18348:

6365:

of Abū Dāwūd (d. 275/889) and al-Nāsaʾī (d. 303/915). The Five Book canon, which is first noted in the sixth/twelfth century, incorporates the

4719:) for the benefit of the poor; as Muhammad's power grew he demanded that tribes who wished to ally with him implement the zakat in particular.3563:, Muhammad embarked on the journey. He was dressed in his customary pilgrim attire and was accompanied by a group of followers. Upon reaching3461:

Citing the intrigue of the Qurayza, Muhammad besieged the tribe, though the tribe denied the charges. However, there are sources that say the

3267:

2082:, which made him no longer want to live. In desperation, Muhammad fled from the cave and began climbing up towards the top of the mountain to26318:

3970:

Historian Alfred T. Welch speculates that Muhammad's death was caused by Medinan fever, which was aggravated by physical and mental fatigue.

3513:, whom Zayd had raided in the past, the tribe seized the opportunity for revenge, attacking the caravan and injuring him. Upon his return to2367:, while other captives were held for ransom. As Uqba pleaded, "But who will take care of my children, Muhammad?" Muhammad responded, "Hell!"1059:. The conquest went largely uncontested, and Muhammad seized the city with minimal casualties. In 632, a few months after returning from the3555:). The Kaaba has been rebuilt several times; the present structure, built in 1629, is a reconstruction of an earlier building dating to 683.5057:

4386:: "I testify that there is no god but God, and I testify that Muhammad is a Messenger of God". The Shahadah is the basic creed or tenet of2432:

after the event of Hijra. These accounts agree that persecution played a major role in Muhammad sending them there. According to historian

15046:

10747:

2078:

When Muhammad came to his senses, he felt scared; he started to think that after all of this spiritual struggle, he had been visited by a

1055:. In December 629, after eight years of intermittent fighting with Meccan tribes, Muhammad gathered an army of 10,000 Muslim converts and21969:

21584:

15670:

12880:

12620:

11633:

11563:

10790:

10682:

10617:

10520:

4522:(1211–1294) is particularly well-known, and widely held to possess a healing, spiritual power. The Quran refers to Muhammad as "a mercy (2801:" ("God is greater") to remind Muslims of their top priority; when Muhammad heard about this dream, he agreed with the idea and selected14788:

14153:

13041:

12455:

12300:

11880:

11758:, where, astonishingly for the sixteenth century, he argued that Muhammad ought to be esteemed even in Christendom as a genuine prophet.11597:

11387:

11236:

10713:

10651:

10580:

5021:

3944:

fed him an Abyssinian remedy when he was unconscious. When he came to, he inquired about it, and they explained they were afraid he had

3720:

for the slain among the Khuza'ah tribe, they disavow themselves of the Banu Bakr, or they should declare the truce of Hudaybiyyah null.

2664:'s account, the Isra' came first and then the Mi'raj, and he put these stories before the deaths of Khadija and Abu Talib. In contrast,24132:

23773:

16884:

12174:

11105:

8122:

2926:

2886:

2727:, the group of planned assassins approached Muhammad's home to carry out the attack but changed their minds upon hearing the voices of3547:

long held a major economic and religious role for the area. Seventeen months after Muhammad's arrival in Medina, it became the Muslim

2440:'s letter preserved by Tabari, these emigrants returned after the conversion to Islam of a number of individuals in positions such as21658:

21574:

15146:

12819:(1987). "Abraha and Muhammad: some observations apropos of chronology and literary topoi in the early Arabic historical tradition1".5898:

4059:

4703:

privilege, rejected hierarchy, and adopted a formula of the career open to the talents". Muhammad's message transformed society and

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24317:

21675:

18085:

5190:

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Hill, following the insistence of the younger faction of his followers. As they prepared to depart, the remaining Jewish allies of

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clan leadership, was initially willing to provide Muhammad with protection. However, upon hearing from Muhammad that Abu Talib and

1770:

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25970:

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24925:

24227:

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3386:, all the men apart from a few converts to Islam were beheaded, while the women and children were enslaved. Walid N. Arafat and3175:, one of three main Jewish tribes, but some historians contend that the expulsion happened after Muhammad's death. According to2697:

protect him as they would protect their wives and children. They concurred and gave him their oath, commonly referred to as the

26084:

25357:

24346:

22607:

21579:

20544:

6361:. Beyond these two foundational classics, some fourth-/tenth-century scholars refer to a four-book selection that adds the two4600:

3681:

3104:

verses permitting Muslims to fight the Meccans. According to the traditional account, on 11 February 624, while praying in the

1018:

480:

2629:

Quranic verse 17:1 recounts Muhammad's night journey from a revered place of prayer to the most distant place of worship. The

1298:

AH). Due to these early biographical efforts, more is known about Muhammad than almost any other founder of a major religion.

1239:

Important sources regarding Muhammad's life may be found in the historic works by writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the

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13514:

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13415:

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5778:

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4781:, and to spread the knowledge of the unity of God from India to Spain. Voltaire had a mixed opinion on Muhammad: in his play3864:

3619:, a flourishing oasis about 75 miles (121km) north of Medina. The city was populated by Jews, including those from the1203:

17672:

14938:

6352:

4604:

Muhammad's entry into Mecca and the destruction of idols. Muhammad is shown as a flame in this manuscript. Found in Bazil's

26588:

26299:

26209:

25550:

25409:

25228:

18682:

11302:

6791:

6513:

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Turkey and elsewhere, but mosques were never decorated with images of Muhammad. Illustrated accounts of the night journey (

2736:

for the return of Muhammad's body, dead or alive. After staying hidden for three days, Muhammad subsequently departed with

624:

26219:

14919:

5011:

3817:, there were no hostile forces present. However, he was able to force some of the local chiefs to accept his rule and pay25035:

24945:

19500:

16076:

15064:

4411:

Calligraphic rendering of "may God honor him and grant him peace", customarily added after Muhammad's name, encoded as a

2715:

proposed a joint assassination of Muhammad by representatives of each clan. Having been informed about this by the angel

2235:, who were indifferent to his proselytizing activities, but when he started to attack their beliefs, tensions arose. The1763:

1229:

25060:

15079:

6249:

3567:, they encountered Quraysh emissaries who questioned their intentions. Muhammad explained they had come to venerate the25871:

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22193:

6312:

6178:

4609:

1635:

804:

26598:

26508:

26112:

25641:

25486:

25363:

21441:

21395:

21072:

21066:

18897:

18596:

15013:

Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: The Classical Texts and Their Interpretation, Volume I: From Convenant to Community

14896:

14747:

14123:

12526:

6616:

5771:

The History of The Qur'anic Text: From Revelation to Compilation: A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments

5097:

4349:. Zayd then became the couple's adopted son, but was later disowned when Muhammad was about to marry Zayd's ex-wife,3634:

The spoils, inclusive of the wives of the slain warriors, were distributed among the Muslims. The chief of the Jews,

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1028:

589:

504:

15706:

9891:

4632:

glass and metalwork" besides books. In the Persian lands, this tradition of realistic depictions lasted through the

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8784:

4674:

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call the community to prayer in a coordinated manner. To resolve this, Muhammad had considered using a ram's horn (

925:

17964:

13381:

The Cambridge History of Islam: Volume 1A, The Central Islamic Lands from Pre-Islamic Times to the First World War

11664:

4865:, and thus, "writing about Islam was for Jews a way of indulging in a fantasy world, far from the persecution and4256:(from 622 until 632). Muhammad is said to have had thirteen wives in total (although two have ambiguous accounts,3747:

and Jesus, but other traditions suggest that all pictures were erased. The Quran discusses the conquest of Mecca.

3583:, an envoy with full negotiation powers. Following lengthy discussions, a treaty was finally enacted, with terms:25326:

25221:

23961:

23812:

21962:

21796:

21612:

15495:

15463:

5432:

5072:

5038:

tradition honors several "mentors" and "prophets," and Muhammad is considered an important prophet of God in the

4945:

4846:

4711:, and the hierarchy of values. Economic reforms addressed the plight of the poor, which was becoming an issue in3646:, as his own slave and later advised her to convert to Islam. She accepted and agreed to become Muhammad's wife.2996:

2910:

2874:

2505:

1391:

do not reject the hadith which have been compiled in later periods, but judge them in their historical context.

26583:

26558:

26553:

26548:

26498:

26291:

26142:

25162:

25015:

23901:

21861:

21419:

21334:

16069:

15115:

14327:

9088:

6210:

6111:

4917:

3437:

forces and their allies withdrew, Muhammad, while bathing at his wife's abode, received a visit from the angel

2618:

lay out the famous Isra' and Mi'raj. Nowadays, Isra' is believed by Muslims to be the journey of Muhammad from

2115:

Frightened and unable to understand the experience, Muhammad hurriedly staggered down the mountain to his wife

2083:

2025:

988:

617:

551:

11616:"Persian illustrated lithographed books on the miʻrāj: improving children's Shi'i beliefs in the Qajar period"11373:

The challenge of the silver screen: an analysis of the cinematic portraits of Jesus, Rama, Buddha and Muhammad

10845:

4885:

argue that viewing Muhammad as a self-seeking impostor makes it impossible to understand Islam's development.

26098:

25878:

25819:

25676:

25613:

25379:

25202:

25075:

24297:

23328:

23056:

22567:

21246:

21005:

20740:

19359:

18903:

15547:

15176:

15139:

14810:

12318:

9934:

6101:

5766:

5619:

5425:

5062:

5007:

4889:

holds that Muhammad was able to be so influential and successful because of his firm belief in his vocation.

3833:, finally reached a tipping point and acknowledged that embracing Islam was the most sensible path for them.3474:

3006:

2820:

2515:

1916:

1284:

1113:

972:

527:

19211:

18091:

12882:

Science and Technology in World History, Volume 2: Early Christianity, the Rise of Islam and the Middle Ages

11411:"Between Logos (Kalima) and Light (Nur): Representations of the Muslim Prophet Muhammad in Islamic Painting"6369:

of al-Tirmidhī (d. 279/892). Finally, the Six Book canon, which hails from the same period, adds either the

4857:

goes on to show how Jews in Europe in particular held more nuanced views about Muhammad and Islam, being an

4641:

Concomitantly, some of the unveiled images from earlier periods were defaced. Later images were produced in

3809:

Roughly 10 months after he captured Mecca, Muhammad took his army to attack the wealthy border provinces of

26518:

26395:

26390:

26128:

25508:

25100:

25095:

24789:

23827:

23460:

23126:

22995:

21781:

21758:

21378:

21251:

21241:

21147:

20858:

17714:

15675:

15660:

12766:

12764:

Cimino, Richard (December 2005). ""No God in Common": American Evangelical Discourse on Islam after 9/11".

3021:

2514:, a crucial source of his financial and emotional support, died. In the same year, his uncle and guardian,1900:

1456:

1357:

1269:

956:

344:

262:

222:

11788:

26276:

25920:

25744:

25115:

25110:

24895:

22428:

21878:

21748:

21564:

21142:

20577:

20066:

18317:

18308:

17002:

15856:

10967:

5102:

4802:

3890:

3869:

3407:

While returning from one of these journeys (or some years earlier according to other early accounts), an

3197:

3089:

2870:

2109:

1195:

1127:

671:

584:

522:

2704:

Subsequently, Muhammad called upon the Meccan Muslims to relocate to Medina. This event is known as the

2247:. But Muhammad asserted that the Quran, in the form he conveyed it, was already an extraordinary proof.26578:

26543:

26385:

26091:

25963:

25885:

25836:

25282:

23780:

23440:

23309:

21955:

21643:

21526:

21060:

20537:

18533:

15490:

15202:

14804:

13824:

12857:

12312:

4649:) were particularly popular from the Ilkhanid period through the Safavid era. During the 19th century,3001:

2698:

2574:, who similarly declined on the basis of tribal principle. Finally, Muhammad dispatched someone to ask2486:

1301:

Many scholars accept these early biographies as authentic. However, Waqidi's biography has been widely

968:

24097:

22572:

18551:

3292:, wearied by Muhammad's continuous attacks on their caravans, decided to take decisive action. Led by26533:

26304:

25543:

24144:

24087:

23672:

23196:

23146:

22076:

21723:

21424:

21270:

20966:

20746:

20709:

18488:

17316:

16791:

15815:

15559:

15368:

15358:

15218:

14713:

14319:

11906:

Tolan, John. "The Prophet Muhammad: A Model of Monotheistic Reform for Nineteenth-Century Ashkenaz."

10823:

8180:

8163:

6636:

5498:

4968:. Contemporary criticism involves questioning Muhammad's legitimacy as a prophet, his moral conduct,4657:

books, with Muhammad's face veiled, aimed in particular at illiterates and children in the manner of

4548:

4304:

3941:

3723:

The Meccans replied that they accepted the last condition. Soon they realized their mistake and sent

3506:

3207:

2941:

2644:

recorded that Muhammad's Mi'raj took place first, from near the Kaaba to the heavens, on the 27th of

2441:

2359:, literally "he of the two horns" (Qur'an 18:93–99), a tale that academics widely associate with the1936:

1920:

1907:, and her husband until he was two years old. At the age of six, Muhammad lost his biological mother1749:

1538:

1131:

1024:

666:

28:

20515:

Names are sorted alphabetically. Standard form: Islamic name / Biblical name (title or relationship)

20089:

18338:

13052:

Imperialism in Medieval History I: Dualism in Byzantine History 476–638 and Dualism in Islam 572–732

6032:

5252:

4062:

took Medina in 1805, Muhammad's tomb was stripped of its gold and jewel ornamentation. Adherents to

2339:

correctly, they stated, he would be a Prophet; otherwise, he would be a liar. When they returned to

54:

26568:

26183:

25662:

25585:

25458:

25343:

24985:

23186:

23136:

22945:

22235:

21873:

21607:

21431:

21221:

20759:

20386:

19488:

19176:

19076:

16515:

15541:

15286:

15229:

15132:

14689:

13844:

13150:

11515:"When Nubuvvat encounters Valayat: Safavid painting of the "Prophet" Mohammad's Mi'raj, c. 1500–50"10597:

4765:

4420:

4199:

4195:

4135:, Muhammad's friend and collaborator. With additional support, Abu Bakr was confirmed as the first4036:

4024:

3732:

3428:

3016:

2966:

2931:

2575:

2394:

2271:

intervened, tearfully saying, "Would you kill a man for saying God is my Lord?" And they left him.

1873:

of Abu al-Qasim later in his life after the birth of his son Qasim, who died two years afterwards.

1191:

11519:

The Art and Material Culture of Iranian Shi'ism: Iconography and Religious Devotion in Shi'i Islam

3825:

that he sent for a raid also managed to acquire some booty including 2,000 camels and 800 cattle.

3615:

Roughly ten weeks subsequent to his return from Hudaybiyya, Muhammad expressed his plan to invade

2492:

In 616, an agreement was established whereby all other Quraysh clans were to enforce a ban on the

26178:

25984:

25949:

25913:

25899:

25350:

24965:

24885:

24302:

23891:

23802:

23266:

22577:

21741:

20632:

18175:

17918:

17578:

16267:

15701:

15665:

15535:

15316:

15306:

14242:

12972:

12942:

12725:

11849:

6520:

6304:

5107:

5082:

4925:

4873:

4869:

of nineteenth-century Europe, where Jews could live in harmony with their non-Jewish neighbors".

4842:

4680:

4268:

4187:

3925:

3713:

3517:, Muhammad ordered Zayd to lead a punitive operation against the Fazara in which their matriarch3221:

Following the surrender of the Qaynuqa, Muhammad was moving to execute the men of the tribe when

3202:

Once the ransom arrangements for the Meccan captives were finalized, he initiated a siege on the

3026:

2986:

2848:, maintains that Muhammad penned the text and divulges its assumed content without supplying any1959:

1904:

1516:

1415:

1288:

1117:

729:

631:

287:

24699:

22930:

20786:

19251:

19034:

18113:

17552:

14447:

The Legend of Sergius Baḥīrā: Eastern Christian Apologetics and Apocalyptic in Response to Islam

12142:

12136:

11489:

11456:

6457:

6411:

4031:

in the 13th century, although the green color was added in the 16th century, under the reign of

2428:, while the majority of the second group remained in Abyssinia at the time and went directly to26538:

26523:

26380:

26214:

25857:

25244:

24292:

24272:

24122:

23792:

23420:

22552:

22464:

21888:

21822:

21791:

21731:

20730:

20725:

20643:

20082:

19332:

18587:

18528:

18418:

17898:

17289:

15685:

15353:

15251:

15099:

15084:

15069:

15051:

14943:

14924:

14765:

13431:

Witnesses to a World Crisis: Historians and Histories of the Middle East in the Seventh Century

13348:

12375:

The History of al-Ṭabarī Vol. 8: The Victory of Islam: Muhammad at Medina A.D. 626-630/A.H. 5-8

11683:

11051:

10731:

10206:

9228:

6334:

The Canonization of al-Bukhārī and Muslim: The Formation and Function of the Sunnī Ḥadīth Canon

5087:

5029:

4961:

4908:

4877:

4589:

4567:

4480:

4316:

4300:

4179:

4167:

4096:

4088:

3744:

3530:

2991:

2826:

2814:

2723:

to lie in his bed covered with his green hadrami mantle, assuring that it would safeguard him.

2591:

2511:

2386:

2376:

2327:

2159:

2116:

2071:

finally recited the verses, allowing Muhammad to memorize them. These verses later constituted

2055:

1975:

1963:

1721:

The Meccan tribe of Quraysh and the Muslim community in Medina sign a 10-year truce called the

1534:

1052:

1032:

865:

797:

649:

612:

24159:

14737:

14606:

14137:

12994:

12861:

12604:

11615:

11547:

11371:

11218:

11002:

10774:

10666:

10601:

10524:

4512:

3596:

Muslims were then required to depart back to Medina, however, they were permitted to make the

2162:

was the first to believe he was a prophet. She was followed by Muhammad's ten-year-old cousin

1919:, the new leader of the Banu Hashim. Abu Talib's brothers assisted with Muhammad's learning —26528:

26166:

25557:

25272:

24446:

24401:

24212:

23807:

23271:

23261:

23156:

22682:

22637:

22140:

21839:

21817:

20653:

20530:

19587:

19456:

19353:

18148:

18015:

17804:

17708:

17563:

17476:

17188:

16953:

16497:

16304:

16013:

15883:

15630:

15437:

15338:

15007:

14470:

Reading the Middle Ages: Sources from Europe, Byzantium, and the Islamic World, Third Edition

14337:

14233:

Quinn, Frederick (2008). "The Prophet as Antichrist and Arab Lucifer (Early Times to 1600)".

14133:

14107:

14083:

13549:

13425:

13025:

12439:

11864:

11816:

11581:

11089:

10697:

10635:

10564:

8106:

6537:

6128:

5052:

4913:

4898:

4792:

4443:

4273:

4140:

4052:

3705:

3660:

3639:

3564:

3482:

3396:

3249:

3240:

3143:

Muhammad ordered a number of raids to capture Meccan caravans, but only the 8th of them, the

3031:

2728:

2701:

or the pledge of war. Paradise was Muhammad's promise to them in exchange for their loyalty.

2563:

2087:

1722:

1154:

636:

566:

24262:

14757:

Watt, W. Montgomery (1998). "Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume I (A-B): [Fasc. 1-22]".

13213:

12849:

12463:

12166:

6332:

3489:

to be sold. The proceeds were then utilized to purchase weapons and horses for the Muslims.

2188:

Around 613, Muhammad began to preach to the public; many of his first followers were women,

26473:

26350:

26134:

26048:

26005:

25998:

25864:

25803:

25372:

24955:

24835:

24604:

24411:

24252:

24179:

23871:

23832:

23817:

23351:

23276:

23076:

22537:

21506:

21413:

21358:

19609:

19204:

19088:

19070:

18219:

18045:

15829:

15424:

15405:

15348:

15343:

15325:

15271:

14465:

14284:

13768:

13748:

13449:

12852:

Orientalism and Islam: European Thinkers on Oriental Despotism in the Middle East and India

12715:

11577:

6028:

4937:

4412:

4328:

4308:

4148:

4007:

Muhammad was buried where he died in Aisha's house. During the reign of the Umayyad caliph

3466:

3446:

3360:

3011:

2558:

On Muhammad's return journey to Mecca, news of the events in Ta'if had reached the ears of

2544:

2240:

2029:

1940:

1877:

1707:

1530:

1353:

1183:

after their expulsion by the Quraysh, and briefly mentions military encounters such as the

929:

540:

416:

352:

209:

24426:

22875:

22662:

22597:

18138:

5017:

4953:

4430:

In Islamic belief, Muhammad is regarded as the last prophet sent by God. Writings such as

1903:, died almost six months before he was born. Muhammad then stayed with his foster-mother,370:ٱبْن عَبْد ٱللَّٰه بْن عَبْد ٱلْمُطَّلِب بْن هَاشِم بْن عَبْد مَنَاف بْن قُصَيّ بْن كِلَاب8:

26478:

26286:

26041:

25956:

25942:

25648:

25599:

25578:

25571:

25522:

25451:

25145:

25025:

24995:

24915:

24441:

24381:

23702:

23622:

23116:

22677:

22622:

22542:

22484:

22367:

22262:

21992:

21736:

21617:

21511:

20841:

20638:

19638:

19582:

19377:

19045:

18687:

17910:

17605:

17275:

17057:

17034:

16028:

16018:

15946:

15941:

15577:

15468:

15301:

15243:

13292:

11138:

8467:

6328:

5886:

4995:

4969:

4797:

4700:

4438:

4401:

4237:

4219:

4128:

4016:

4012:

3991:

3873:

3842:

3822:

3814:

3791:

3760:

3643:

3576:

3450:

3301:

3293:

3222:

3180:

3105:

3066:

3051:

2693:

2613:

2402:

2091:

2062:. According to Islamic tradition, one day in 610 CE, when he was 40 years old, the angel1349:

1256:

1215:

1068:

1060:

722:

487:

456:

356:

141:

62:

24189:

18543:

18469:

15256:

13284:

11843:

4707:

of life in the Arabian Peninsula; society focused on the changes to perceived identity,

2660:

before the hijrah. As is well known, these two stories were later combined into one. In

26034:

25906:

25716:

25627:

25564:

25430:

25386:

25267:

25157:

25152:

25135:

25130:

24599:

24107:

24044:

23236:

22895:

22860:

22770:

22297:

22130:

22081:

21893:

21812:

21663:

21599:

21407:

21383:

21077:

21055:

21015:

20905:

20818:

20769:

20735:

20626:

19995:

19964:

19437:

19083:

18835:

18657:

17979:

17107:

16773:

15977:

15783:

15582:

15480:

15442:

15410:

15333:

15060:

15042:

14733:

14709:

14685:

14602:

14313:

14235:

14169:

14017:

13118:

13094:

12965:

12936:

12836:

12783:

12544:

11482:

11449:

8059:

8032:

7808:

7022:

6357:

We can discern three strata of the Sunni ḥadīth canon. The perennial core has been the

6299:

5949:

5255:

that as Muhammad was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the Archangel

5112:

4904:

4810:

4585:

4320:

4253:

4207:

3717:

3635:

3375:

3346:

2976:

2757:

2455:, after delivering verses mentioning three of their favorite deities (Quran 53:19–20),2437:

2433:

2323:

2193:

2120:

1833:

1649:

1325:

1302:

1199:

995:

these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "submission" (

901:

734:

559:

473:

24589:

22845:

12223:

The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings

26573:

26513:

26105:

25829:

25790:

25711:

25683:

25423:

25262:

25120:

25065:

24905:

24694:

24356:

24282:

24257:

24059:

23861:

23025:

22925:

22890:

22715:

22692:

22687:

22562:

22178:

22168:

22017:

22002:

21978:

21868:

21773:

21763:

21753:

21436:

21291:

21134:

21045:

20806:

20796:

20791:

20781:

20776:

20609:

20451:

19643:

19628:

19564:

19023:

18749:

18334:

18233:

18011:

17991:

17984:

17050:

16827:

15762:

15593:

15587:

15291:

15281:

15017:

14993:

14974:

14948:

14892:

14867:

14844:

14823:

14770:

14743:

14719:

14695:

14671:

14636:

14612:

14588:

14566:

14539:

14518:

14497:

14473:

14451:

14430:

14406:

14385:

14366:

14347:

14323:

14294:

14270:

14264:

14246:

14219:

14198:

14177:

14143:

14119:

14093:

14087:

14069:

14048:

14027:

14003:

13979:

13958:

13934:

13913:

13878:

13854:

13830:

13806:

13778:

13754:

13730:

13706:

13685:

13663:

13653:

13638:

13614:

13604:

13590:

13566:

13545:

13531:

13510:

13484:

13459:

13435:

13411:

13385:

13364:

13334:

13310:

13266:

13245:

13239:

13221:

13214:

13198:

13174:

13128:

13104:

13080:

13056:

13031:

13000:

12976:

12946:

12918:

12886:

12865:

12850:

12840:

12802:

12750:

12729:

12719:

12701:

12677:

12656:

12635:

12610:

12586:

12558:

12522:

12494:

12473:

12445:

12424:

12403:

12379:

12355:

12336:

12282:

12251:

12226:

12201:

12146:

11870:

11822:

11743:

11623:

11587:

11553:

11522:

11493:

11460:

11418:

11377:

11292:

11226:

11095:

10780:

10737:

10703:

10672:

10641:

10607:

10570:

10500:

9940:

9347:

8690:

8665:

8112:

8073:

8037:

7800:

7217:

7169:

7014:

6781:

6612:

6543:

6473:

6427:

6342:

6308:

6265:

6230:

6226:

6174:

6134:

6107:

6004:"Discovery of 'oldest' Qur'an fragments could resolve enigmatic history of holy text"5774:

5747:

5067:

5032:, the founder of the Baháʼí faith, and the first manifestation of the current cycle.4976:, treatment of enemies, approach to doctrinal matters, and psychological well-being.4757:

4624:

4617:

4492:

4487:, illustrates the Muslim conception of the role of Muhammad: "There is no god except4465:

4367:

4350:

4338:

4324:

4261:

4257:

4249:

4028:

3859:

3677:

3610:

3310:

3121:

3076:

3056:

3041:

3036:

2971:

2961:

2657:

2360:

2171:

1958:

Sometime later in his life, Muhammad proposed marriage to his cousin and first love,

1810:

1735:

1400:

1097:

1064:

1056:

897:

790:

607:

463:

439:

196:

24:

24174:

22795:

22489:

13212:

Goddard, Hugh (2000). "The First Age of Christian-Muslim Interaction (c. 830/215)".

12117:

4791:, he presents Mohammed as a legislator and conqueror and calls him an "enthusiast".4496:

3408:

3152:

1051:, also known as the Hijri calendar. In Medina, Muhammad united the tribes under the26593:

26062:

26055:

25977:

25814:

25669:

25606:

25501:

25125:

25055:

24825:

24744:

24739:

24664:

24639:

24584:

24574:

24564:

24534:

24514:

24504:

24371:

24366:

24324:

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17759:

17609:

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13820:

13792:

13502:

13324:

13280:

13188:

13146:

12828:

12775:

12548:

12540:

11754:

Indeed, greater tolerance for other religions was much in evidence in Πανθενωδια:

11739:

9930:

9184:

Nemoy, "Barakat Ahmad's "Muhammad and the Jews", p. 325. Nemoy is sourcing Ahmad's

7792:

6688:

6465:

6419:

6338:

6257:

6222:

5092:

4973:

4949:

4933:

4823:(1841) describes "Mahomet" as "A silent great soul; he was one of those who cannot4774:

4761:

4753:

4745:

4442:

attribute several miracles or supernatural events to Muhammad. One of these is the

4171:

4159:

3951:

3756:

3160:

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2956:

2946:

2601:

2390:

2101:

1980:

1885:

1602:

1388:

1048:

1036:

913:

823:

778:

746:

739:

364:

24729:

22950:

14799:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 11 February 2017.6261:

4699:

of Arab society. For example, according to Lewis, Islam "from the first denounced

3509:

was tasked with guarding the convoy. When they journeyed through the territory of

3305:

loyal adherents. Satisfied they had restored their honor, the Meccans returned to

1847:

The name Muhammad means "praiseworthy" in Arabic and it appears four times in the

1235:, believed to have been transmitted by his students shortly after his death in 83326563:

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26239:

25773:

25528:

25444:

25401:

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24855:

24774:

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12307:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 5 December 2017.12276:

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9368:

9341:

8063:

7368:

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6517:

4886:

4834:

4813:

admired Muhammad and Islam, and described him as a model lawmaker and conqueror.

4778:

4741:

4695:, family structure, slavery and the rights of women and children improved on the4692:

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4342:

4163:

3709:

3455:

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2936:

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2733:

2724:

2571:

2527:

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and found a small colony under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian emperor

2105:

1912:

1488:

975:. In later years, he would periodically seclude himself in a mountain cave named960:

876:

856:

491:

360:

348:

228:

20:

17959:

13726:

Jews, Christians, and the Abode of Islam: Modern Scholarship, Medieval Realities

11620:

The Prophet's ascension: cross-cultural encounters with the Islamic mi'rāj tales

8386:

6692:

6510:

5953:

4101:

2066:

appeared to him during his visit to the cave. The angel showed him a cloth with

19:

This article is about the Islamic prophet. For other people named Muhammad, see

25796:

25765:

25172:

25080:

25070:

24799:

24674:

24659:

24634:

24629:

24624:

24569:

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24479:

24341:

24312:

24287:

24242:

24222:

24184:

24139:

24019:

24009:

23866:

23697:

23510:

23286:

23176:

23106:

23005:

22980:

22850:

22820:

22780:

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22527:

22512:

22507:

22398:

22388:

22098:

22049:

21936:

21668:

21521:

21363:

21082:

20076:

20044:

20004:

19871:

19862:

19633:

19618:

19557:

19274:

19194:

19135:

18804:

18652:

18430:

18169:

18142:

18118:

17953:

17937:

17790:

17749:

17721:

17688:

17615:

17532:

17520:

17498:

17482:

17323:

16809:

16755:

16589:

16576:

16546:

16528:

16455:

16437:

16048:

15769:

15604:

15485:

15395:

15390:

13948:

13677:

13580:

13403:

13399:

13070:

10560:

7852:

7571:

7414:

7402:

5042:, being among the seven prophets who appeared in different periods of history.4858:

4850:

4814:

4783:

4704:

4658:

4642:

4574:

4127:

With Muhammad's death, disagreement broke out over who his successor would be.

4032:

3960:

O God, forgive me and have mercy on me; and let me join the highest companions.

3937:

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3392:

3272:

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3148:

3144:

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2559:

2530:

were destined for hell due to not believing in Islam, he withdrew his support.

2468:

2380:

2364:

2356:

2352:

2313:

2284:

1869:

1694:

1681:

1373:

1331:

1184:

1164:

921:

917:

377:

19448:

12911:

El-Azhari, Taef Kamal (2019). "Two Wives at the Same Time: Sawda and 'Aisha".

12832:

9888:

8524:

8522:

8014:

7390:

7363:

7336:

6469:

6423:

4459:

represents the actions and sayings of Muhammad (preserved in reports known as

3750:

3465:

broke the treaty with Muhammad and assisted the enemies of Muslims during the

2604:. It marks the spot where Muhammad is believed by Muslims to have ascended to1122:

26467:

26371:

26232:

26121:

25592:

25536:

25465:

25287:

25105:

24935:

24845:

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24669:

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24509:

24484:

24351:

24329:

24247:

24154:

24127:

24112:

24054:

23737:

23291:

23000:

22985:

22975:

22960:

22910:

22865:

22825:

22760:

22755:

22725:

22592:

22532:

22474:

22198:

22012:

21844:

21681:

21531:

21087:

21050:

21025:

20910:

20071:

19783:

19706:

19683:

19128:

18538:

18494:

18435:

18401:

18325:

18224:

18158:

17800:

17769:

17504:

17452:

16242:

16224:

16187:

15962:

15840:

15822:

15790:

15385:

14962:

14792:

14260:

13868:

13744:

13720:

13356:

13142:

13021:

12990:

12960:

12932:

12518:

10727:

8362:

8338:

7804:

7018:

6771:

6294:

6234:

4882:

4854:

4684:

4578:

3803:

3795:

3535:

3387:

3337:

3317:

2745:

2251:

2059:

2058:, his wealthy wife, gave him plenty of free time to spend in solitude in the2047:

1928:

1663:

1560:

1135:

976:

909:

165:

151:

18856:

18462:

17630:

7136:

7134:

4736:

by M. Prideaux (1699). He holds a sword and a crescent while trampling on a

4588:, Islamic religious art mainly focuses on the word. Muslims generally avoid4407:

3699:

manuscript. The angels Gabriel, Michael, Israfil and Azrail, are also shown.

2416:

mentioned only one migration to Abyssinia, there were two sets according to

2370:

26446:

25850:

25734:

25472:

25395:

25085:

24769:

24759:

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22522:

22257:

22252:

22240:

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22147:

22071:

21926:

21856:

21516:

21368:

21263:

20979:

20883:

20871:

20585:

20167:

19924:

19510:

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19066:

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18739:

18734:

18523:

18479:

17974:

17559:

17472:

17226:

17141:

17124:

17016:

16943:

16858:

16491:

16298:

16023:

15987:

15755:

14888:

14585:

Politics, Gender, and the Islamic Past: The Legacy of 'A'isha Bint Abi Bakr

14308:

13993:

13892:

12536:

12326:

8960:

8873:

8766:

8519:

8398:

8042:

5420:

4929:

4531:

4346:

4203:

3908:

3848:

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3462:

3442:

3379:

3281:

3226:

3203:

3172:

3164:

2835:

2798:

2548:

2295:

clan and Muhammad's caretaker, giving him an ultimatum to disown Muhammad:

2280:

2209:

2142:

2072:

2043:

1932:

1795:

1556:

1542:

1377:

1361:

1172:

1002:

766:

661:

390:

18662:

18180:

17526:

14860:

Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: Islam and the Ideology of Enslavement

14533:

14402:

The Generalship of Muhammad: Battles and Campaigns of the Prophet of Allah

14114:

The Monotheists: Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Conflict and Competition

12552:

12248:

The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status

5210:), called to be a "warner," first to the Arabs and then to all humankind."3727:

to renew the Hudaybiyyah treaty, a request that was declined by Muhammad.

26250:

25213:

24784:

24779:

24714:

24709:

24559:

24431:

24386:

24376:

24169:

24164:

24102:

24039:

23822:

23797:

23722:

23682:

23652:

23627:

23607:

23586:

23566:

23546:

23536:

23505:

23370:

23251:

23046:

23020:

23015:

22815:

22800:

22667:

22647:

22627:

22479:

22454:

22413:

22274:

22183:

22173:

22135:

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22022:

21493:

21000:

20939:

20866:

20753:

20357:

20150:

19905:

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19836:

19470:

19430:

19371:

19237:

19226:

19222:

18764:

18677:

18672:

17260:

16564:

16033:

15997:

15972:

14915:

13352:

11127:

9157:

Arafat. "New Light on the Story of Banu Qurayza and the Jews of Medina".

8479:

7324:

7194:

7131:

6968:

6830:

6096:

5932:

5890:

5039:

4965:

4941:

4662:

4472:

4223:

4191:

4175:

3830:

3810:

3510:

2641:

2579:

2523:

2493:

2417:

2292:

2260:

2255:

2050:

where, according to Muslim belief, Muhammad received his first revelation

2013:

1992:

1814:

1615:

1101:

676:

298:

278:

18053:

17855:

17282:

16061:

14343:

The Emergence of Islam: Classical Traditions in Contemporary Perspective

9970:

5220:

4691:

Historians generally agree that Islamic social changes in areas such as

4039:. Among tombs adjacent to that of Muhammad are those of his companions (2878:

1017:), and that he was a prophet and messenger of God, similar to the other26024:

25843:

25304:

25167:

24975:

24875:

24724:

24644:

24416:

24307:

24149:

24092:

24069:

24034:

23983:

23973:

23941:

23886:

23712:

23692:

23617:

23581:

23485:

23470:

23395:

23320:

23256:

23216:

22785:

22775:

22652:

22582:

22469:

22438:

22418:

22362:

22357:

22312:

22207:

21786:

20900:

20875:

19886:

19766:

19670:

19661:

19245:

18892:

18845:

18729:

18410:

18163:

17236:

15992:

15982:

15967:

15296:

15276:

15224:

14758:

14626:

14535:

Encyclopaedia of Islam, Volume III (H-Iram): [Fasc. 41-60, 60a]

13999:

Muhammad's Mission: Religion, Politics, and Power at the Birth of Islam

13527:

The Life of the Prophet Muḥammad: A Translation of Al-Sīra Al-Nabawiyya

13498:

12787:

12649:

Borup, Jørn; Fibiger, Marianne Qvortrup; Kühle, Lene (1 October 2019).

12296:

11661:

10637:

Islamic art in the 19th century: tradition, innovation, and eclecticism

10497:

Architectural Conservation in Islam: Case Study of the Prophet's Mosque

9899:

8813:

8069:

7812:

6999:

6211:"Writing the Biography of the Prophet Muhammad: Problems and Solutions"4957:

4921:

4862:

4830:

4712:

4708:

4341:

was a slave that Khadija gave to Muhammad. He was bought by her nephew

4152:

4020:

4008:

3999:

3724:

3620:

3370:

3366:

3321:

3297:

3244:

2661:

2479:

movement and systematic theology with its new doctrines, including the

2413:

2398:

2204:

1952:

1876:

Islamic tradition states that Muhammad's birth year coincided with the

1829:

1365:

1265:

1240:

1225:

997:

885:

306:

137:

92:

88:

20182:

17942:

17903:

17243:

17066:

6687:

Marr J.S., Hubbard E., Cathey J.T. (2014): The Year of the Elephant.

6173:. Santa Barbara, California Denver, Colorado: ABC-CLIO. p.1634.2096:

1970:

1915:, until the latter's death. He then came under the care of his uncle,1260:

written c. 767 CE (150 AH). Although the original work was lost, this

26225:

25309:

25299:

24865:

24804:

24361:

24004:

23931:

23916:

23837:

23757:

23752:

23677:

23632:

23612:

23591:

23576:

23556:

23541:

23405:

23365:

23296:

23246:

23010:

22885:

22612:

22383:

22307:

22214:

22188:

22108:

21501:

20949:

20764:

20445:

20435:

20123:

19575:

19386:

19312:

19158:

18946:

18815:

18516:

18500:

17845:

17492:

17180:

17129:

16993:

15931:

15609:

15571:

15553:

15197:

14661:

14487:

13509:. Translated by Gassick, Prof Trevor Le. Reading: Garnet Publishing.13474:

13164:

12901:

12420:

Muhammad and the Empires of Faith: The Making of the Prophet of Islam

12393:

12369:

11968:

11329:

11024:

9920:

Harold Wayne Ballard, Donald N. Penny, W. Glenn Jonas (2002), p. 163.

7212:

7164:

6608:

4593:

4535:

4519:

4281:

4144:

4063:

3877:

3740:

3736:

3559:

Early in 628, following a dream of making an unopposed pilgrimage to

3518:

3383:

3325:

3316:

Sometime later, Muhammad found himself needing to pay blood money to

3215:

3176:

3125:

3117:

2839:

2787:

2741:

2665:

2623:

2519:

2409:

2288:

2137:

2009:

1996:

1369:

1273:

1251:

21947:

20140:

14653:

Foundations of Muslim Images and Treatment of the World Beyond Islam

14194:

Muhammad and Jesus: A Comparison of the Prophets and Their Teachings

12779:

7796:

5157:, and others; there are also variant spellings of Muhammad, such as4916:

has existed since the 7th century, when Muhammad was decried by his

4728:

3901:

3687:

2612:

It is at this low point in Muhammad's life that the accounts in the

1790:

26271:

26203:

25706:

25140:

24719:

24456:

24014:

23988:

23968:

23921:

23732:

23687:

23571:

23475:

23465:

23430:

23400:

23221:

22697:

22393:

22352:

22347:

22113:

22088:

21834:

21340:

21215:

21167:

20961:

20915:

20879:

20347:

20187:

20172:

19461:

19143:

18983:

18972:

18965:

18754:

18602:

18581:

18209:

18103:

18028:

17368:

17330:

17136:

15921:

15655:

15511:

12352:

The Translation of the Meanings of Sahih Al-Bukhari: Arabic-English

11514:

7619:

7534:

7152:

4637:

4628:

4621:

4500:

4484:

4382:

4285:

4232:

The tomb of Muhammad is located in the quarters of his third wife,

4132:

4092:

4044:

3945:

3691:

A depiction of Muhammad (with veiled face) advancing on Mecca from

3470:

3253:

meeting with Ka'b, they murdered him when he was caught off-guard.

2737:

2551:, so he began praying. Shortly thereafter, Utbah's Christian slave2268:

2189:

2167:

25739:

15650:

14266:

In the Footsteps of the Prophet: Lessons from the Life of Muhammad

12118:"Sufis celebrate birthday of Sheikh Abu El-Haggag at Luxor mosque"10837:

9936:

The Life of Muhammad. A translation of Ishaq's "Sirat Rasul Allah"

6150:

3765:

2711:

Islamic tradition recounts that in light of the unfolding events,

1092:

26172:

25325:

25292:

25177:

25090:

23978:

23946:

23936:

23707:

23667:

23500:

23425:

23410:

23390:

22459:

22322:

22103:

22061:

22044:

21849:

21455:

21160:

21040:

20932:

20925:

20920:

20662:

20413:

20208:

19712:

19525:

19482:

19411:

19406:

19343:

19278:

19264:

19166:

18821:

18810:

18609:

18572:

18302:

18246:

18152:

17763:

17735:

17588:

17546:

17462:

17399:

17350:

17271:

16707:

16570:

16322:

16286:

15926:

15876:

15867:

15645:

15614:

13378:

Holt, P. M.; Lambton, Ann K. S.; Lewis, Bernard (21 April 1977).

10428:

9159:

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland

8540:

7595:

5854:

5852:

5502:

5256:

5028:, but consider his teachings to have been superseded by those of4866:

4586:

hadith prohibits the creation of images of sentient living beings

4416:

4376:, the belief in Muhammad's prophethood is the main aspect of the4312:

4228:

4074:

4040:

3799:

3787:

3774:

3616:

3438:

3434:

3289:

2716:

2645:

2596:

2567:

2461:

2452:

2345:

2331:

2275:

2236:

2146:

2063:

1924:

1841:

1837:

1818:

1801:

Muhammad ibn Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim was born in

1176:

984:

964:

694:

656:

14988:

Muslim, Imam Abul-Husain; Al-Khattab, Nasiruddin (1 June 2007).

13874:

God Has Ninety-Nine Names: Reporting from a Militant Middle East

13480:

The Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Isḥāq's Sīrat Rasūl Allāh

12012:

12010:

11545:

4015:(the Mosque of the Prophet) was expanded to include the site of2231:

Initially, he had no serious opposition from the inhabitants of

2067:

26196:

25698:

25277:

23926:

23727:

23515:

23490:

23480:

23450:

23435:

23241:

22332:

22302:

22154:

22066:

21997:

21373:

21347:

21323:

21284:

21201:

21114:

21035:

20890:

20836:

20831:

20598:

20522:

20456:

20331:

20203:

20118:

20037:

19979:

19795:

19789:

19495:

19321:

19306:

19103:

19055:

18992:

18960:

18873:

18783:

18718:

18614:

18362:

18343:

18238:

18204:

17849:

17818:

17795:

17666:

17574:

17466:

17338:

17174:

17117:

17097:

17039:

17026:

17011:

16854:

16743:

16725:

16509:

15916:

15739:

15711:

15680:

15640:

15635:

15523:

15458:

15363:

15119:

10668:

Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the present

10629:

10627:

10603:

Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the present

5024:." He is thought to be the final manifestation, or seal of the4985:

4838:

4527:

4508:

4477:

4460:

4456:

4448:

4432:

4377:

4373:

4241:

4136:

4067:

3995:

3628:

3624:

3572:

3514:

3502:

3416:

3341:

3276:

3129:

2844:

2793:

2782:

2770:

2705:

2682:

2649:

2640:

The dating of the events also differs from account to account.

2605:

2476:

2429:

2425:

1948:

1908:

1889:

1881:

1806:

1667:

1474:

1411:

1345:

1320:

1315:

1220:

1180:

1087:

1082:

1044:

1040:

941:

937:

905:

704:

499:

468:

123:

66:

19203:(The valley on the 'righthand' side of the Valley of Tuwa and14237:

The Sum of All Heresies: The Image of Islam in Western Thought

13975:

Suicide in the Middle Ages: Volume 2: The Curse on Self-Murder

10936:

10733:

Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the contemporary world

8290:

7783:

Ahmed, Shahab (1998). "Ibn Taymiyyah and the Satanic Verses".

6248:

Lecker, Michael (19 April 2010), Brockopp, Jonathan E. (ed.),

5849:

5658:

4190:

which deemed them heretics. Within a decade Muslims conquered

1991:, illustrating the story of Muhammad's role in re-setting the1896:

deems the tale of Abraha's war elephant expedition as a myth.

1063:, he fell ill and died. By the time of his death, most of the1013:

26189:

26160:

25760:

25726:

25635:

The 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History

23956:

23445:

23380:

22342:

22337:

22317:

22125:

21622:

21447:

21401:

21389:

21208:

21194:

21153:

20826:

20683:

20669:

20590:

20553:

20377:

20032:

20009:

19987:

19777:

19771:

19741:

19423:

19325:

19148:

19121:

19097:

19007:

18878:

18790:

18562:

18511:

18474:

18380:

18098:

18081:

17810:

17753:

17725:

17648:

17634:

17619:

17595:

17569:

17536:

17514:

17486:

17410:

17380:

17373:

17364:

17355:

17204:

17162:

16957:

16908:

16866:

16815:

16761:

16595:

16552:

16534:

16461:

16443:

16261:

16211:

15911:

15716:

15432:

15261:

14363:

Arabia and Ethiopia. In The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity

13930:

Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice

13702:

Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History

12354:. Translated by Khan, Muhammad M. Dar-us-Salam Publications.12007:

11895:

History of Islam in German Thought: From Leibniz to Nietzsche

11821:. Cambridge Companions to Religion. AuthorHouse. p.15.11772:

11770:

11768:

11766:

11268:

11266:

9566:

9564:

8104:

7828:

7109:

7107:

7044:

7011:

Proceedings of the 11th International Congress of Turkish Art

6492:

5035:

4737:

4716:

4488:

4397:

4392:

4387:

4289:

4277:

4233:

3929:

3818:

3712:

had good relations with Muhammad, whereas their enemies, the

3651:

3597:

3568:

3560:

3552:

3548:

3544:

3540:

3412:

3306:

3232:

3185:

3101:

2776:

2762:

2630:

2619:

2552:

2539:

2481:

2456:

2421:

2340:

2335:

2264:

2244:

2232:

2224:). By this point, Muhammad's religious movement was known as2220:

2214:

2198:

2124:

2005:

1848:

1824:

1802:

1502:

1470:

1384:

1168:

1160:

1007:

992:

952:

933:

893:

838:

547:

403:

330:

243:

99:

11091:

The mantle odes: Arabic praise poems to the Prophet Muḥammad

10624:

10272:

9392:

8712:

8710:

8708:

8706:

8142:

8140:

7763:

7761:

7759:

7757:

2420:. Of these two, the majority of the first group returned to2038:

23951:

23375:

22327:

21305:

21277:

21227:

21174:

21119:

20690:

20177:

20101:

19732:

19515:

19188:

18977:

18867:

18851:

18396:

18108:

17814:

17773:

17644:

17599:

17456:

17305:

17209:

16248:

16230:

16193:

15517:

15124:

12914:

Queens, Eunuchs and Concubines in Islamic History, 661-1257

11736:

Defending the West: A Critique of Edward Said's Orientalism

11618:. In Christiane J. Gruber; Frederick Stephen Colby (eds.).11087:

10089:

10087:

9840:

9838:

9715:

9657:

9655:

9653:

9651:

9411:

9409:

9407:

9037:

9035:

8902:

8900:

8727:

8725:

8415:

8413:

8232:

8230:

8228:

8203:

8201:

7944:

7942:

7718:

6919:

6917:

6659:

6657:

6456:

Brown, Daniel W. (2 January 2020), Brown, Daniel W. (ed.),

5869:

5867:

5697:

4991:

4650:

4516:

4299:

Khadijah is said to have had four daughters with Muhammad (

4248:

Muhammad's life is traditionally defined into two periods:

4183:

4048:

3779:

3751:

Subduing the Hawazin and Thaqif and the expedition to Tabuk

3735:

in and around the Kaaba. According to reports collected by

3486:

2534:

2445:

2202:) with physical postures that embodied complete surrender (2131:

2079:

2033:

1076:

1039:

in 615, before he and his followers migrated from Mecca to

892:

religious, social, and political leader and the founder of

889:

844:

829:

699:

14967:

TDV Encyclopedia of Islam, Vol. 30 (Misra – Muhammedi̇yye)

13826:

The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate

13455:

Islamic History: A Framework for Inquiry – Revised Edition

13330:

The Venture of Islam, Volume 1: The Classical Age of Islam

12469:

Messianism and Sociopolitical Revolution in Medieval Islam

11763:

11263:

11251:

10948:

10885:

10797:

10754:

10440:

10356:

10308:

10171:

10060:

9734:

9732:

9730:

9561:

9297:

9251:

9249:

8278:

7706:

7648:

7646:

7607:

7583:

7474:

7104:

6980:

6256:(1ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp.61–80,3168:

converted to Islam, and little pagan opposition remained.

1579:

Begins spreading message of Islam publicly to all Meccans

1250:(biographies of Muhammad and quotes attributed to him) is23520:

23415:

20367:

19761:

19543:

16947:

15529:

14992:(Firsted.). Riyadh: Dar-us-Salam Publications Inc.12278:

Muhammad, the Messenger of Islam: His Life & Prophecy

10452:

10183:

10159:

9636:

9346:. Pakistan Branch, Oxford University Press. p.453.9273:

8936:

8861:

8849:

8785:

Muhammad: Biography of the Prophet. Karen Armstrong. 2023

8703:

8601:

8374:

8137:

7754:

7658:

7631:

7498:

7438:

7378:

6718:

6716:

6703:

6701:

6410:

Görke, Andreas (2 January 2020), Brown, Daniel W. (ed.),

5839:

5837:

5835:

5833:

5831:

5675:

5673:

4861:

minority feeling discriminated, they specifically lauded

3933:

3642:

in revenge for his brother. Muhammad took Kinana's wife,

3473:

allies who had embraced Islam, leading to the arrival of

3211:

2720:

2371:

Migration to Abyssinia and the incident of Satanic Verses

2163:

2112:

that resisted the ordinary limits of humanity and space.

2086:. But when he reached the summit, he experienced another14632:

Understanding the Hadith: The Sacred Traditions of Islam

13774:

God's Crucible: Islam and the Making of Europe, 570-1215

13279:

11974:

11796:

11181:

11154:

Ann Goldman, Richard Hain, Stephen Liben (2006), p. 212.

11148:

10478:

10476:

10380:

10344:

10248:

10135:

10084:

9835:

9785:

9783:

9648:

9612:

9588:

9551:

9549:

9510:

9486:

9474:

9428:

9426:

9424:

9404:

9382:

9380:

9285:

9113:

9094:

9052:

9050:

9032:

9008:

8996:

8984:

8972:

8924:

8897:

8801:

8744:

8742:

8740:

8722:

8485:

8425:

8410:

8350:

8314:

8242:

8225:

8198:

8186:

7939:

7912:

7742:

7694:

7559:

7312:

7263:

7251:

7239:

7119:

6934:

6932:

6914:

6854:

6654:

6575:

6289:

6287:

6079:

6077:

5971:

5922:, Mary Pat Fisher, 1997, p. 338, I.B. Tauris Publishers.5920:

Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths

5864:

5829:

5827:

5825:

5823:

5821:

5819:

5817:

5815:

5813:

5811:

3854:

3773:

Upon learning that Mecca had fallen to the Muslims, the

2499:

14947:. Vol.7 (2nded.). Brill. pp.360–376.14472:. Toronto Buffalo London: University of Toronto Press.11997:

11995:

11702:

11583:

Islamic Art and Visual Culture: An Anthology of Sources

11193:

11169:

11057:

10852:

10633:

10332:

10284:

10260:

10236:

10224:

10212:

10147:

10123:

10048:

10024:

10012:

10000:

9976:

9804:

9802:

9800:

9798:

9744:

9727:

9703:

9667:

9600:

9534:

9498:

9462:

9340:

Ibn Hishām, ʻAbd al-Malik; Ibn Isḥāq, Muḥammad (1967).

9246:

9234:

9125:

9020:

8912:

8885:

8837:

8825:

8789:

8754:

8618:

8616:

8302:

7929:

7927:

7900:

7840:

7670:

7643:

7510:

7462:

7450:

5685:

5584:

See, for example, the Sindhi poem of Shah ʿAbd al-Latif

3928:'s hut. He requested his wives to allow him to stay in979:

for several nights of prayer. When he was 40, circa 610

19038:('The Sandy Plains,' or 'the Wind-curved Sand-hills')14973:, Centre for Islamic Studies. 2005. pp.406–479.14562:

Muhammad's People: An Anthology of Muslim Civilization

12821:

Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies

12073:

11157:

10552:

10320:

9691:

9522:

9321:

9062:

8948:

8326:

8266:

8213:

8108:

The Grove encyclopedia of Islamic art and architecture

7990:

7966:

7682:

7353:

7351:

7184:

7182:

7080:

7032:

6944:

6713:

6698:

6669:

5670:

4760:

praised Muhammad because "he did not deviate from the

4616:

The earliest extant depictions come from 13th century

3940:, as his legs were trembling. His wives and his uncle3587:

A ten-year truce was established between both parties.

2805:, a former Abyssinian slave known for his loud voice.1430:

Important dates and locations in the life of Muhammad

1043:(then known as Yathrib) later in 622. This event, the23097:

The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction

14769:. Vol.1 (2nded.). Brill. pp.867–8.14532:

Schacht; Lewis; Pellat; Ménage, eds. (26 June 1998),

13651:

12167:"A Baháʼí Approach to the Claim of Finality in Islam"12027:

12025:

11980:

10873:

10473:

10392:

10368:

10296:

10111:

10099:

10072:

10036:

9988:

9780:

9679:

9624:

9576:

9546:

9450:

9438:

9421:

9377:

9309:

9261:

9219:

9217:

9215:

9047:

8737:

8254:

8152:

7888:

7876:

7730:

7522:

7486:

7275:

7068:

7056:

6929:

6890:

6878:

6866:

6740:

6642:

6284:

6074:

6062:

6052:

6050:

5983:

5808:

5522:

5020:

venerate Muhammad as one of a number of prophets or "

3743:, Muhammad personally spared paintings or frescos of2510:

In 619, Muhammad faced a period of sorrow. His wife,

19736:(literally 'The Pilgrimage', the Greater Pilgrimage)11992:

11922:

11576:

10416:

10404:

9795:

9768:

9756:

8641:

8613:

8564:

8449:

8086:

8002:

7978:

7924:

7287:

7227:

6956:

6728:

6563:

5726:

5724:

5709:

5648:

5646:

5644:

5642:

5640:

4837:

writers generally held positive views of Muhammad: "

4820:

On Heroes, Hero-Worship, & the Heroic in History

4072:

3949:

3906:

3623:, who had previously been expelled by Muhammad from3403:

has contradicted the arguments of Arafat and Ahmad.

2348:

came to Muhammad and provided him with the answers.

870:

847:

14783:

14656:. Michigan State University. Department of History.14139:

Jesus and Muhammad: Parallel Tracks, Parallel Lives

13472:

12332:

Before Orthodoxy: The Satanic Verses in Early Islam

12061:

12049:

12037:

11934:

11609:

11607:

11539:

9866:

9339:

9200:

8437:

7864:

7546:

7426:

7348:

7179:

6462:

The Wiley Blackwell Concise Companion to the Hadith

6416:

The Wiley Blackwell Concise Companion to the Hadith

6386:

5796:

5664:

5501:mentioning the differing accounts of the status of5203:

4143:. Abu Bakr immediately moved to strike against the3932:'s hut. He could not walk there without leaning on3501:, Muhammad organized a caravan to conduct trade in3441:, who instructed him to attack the Jewish tribe of3320:. He sought monetary help from the Jewish tribe of3214:in the Banu Qaynuqa market, and another version by841:

835:

832:

826:

16906:

14840:Muhammad and the Supernatural: Medieval Arab Views14667:The Life of Muḥammad: Al-Wāqidī's Kitāb Al-maghāzī14234:

14111:

13530:. Center for Muslim Contribution to Civilization.13363:(paperbacked.). Cambridge University Press.12964:

12582:Arabic Literature to the End of the Umayyad Period12399:The History of al-Tabari Vol. 6: Muhammad at Mecca12022:

11481:

11448:

11012:. Mountain View, Ca.: Unicode, Inc. 1 October 200910864:

10814:

10812:

10634:Behrens-Abouseif, Doris; Vernoit, Stephen (2006).9212:

8687:The Life of Muhammad: Al-Waqidi's Kitab al-Maghazi8065:The History of al-Ṭabarī Vol. 6: Muhammad at Mecca7825:The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad (2010), p. 35.7092:

6187:

6047:

5137:He is referred to by many appellations, including4715:Mecca. The Quran requires payment of an alms tax (4597:veiled, or symbolically represent him as a flame.1836:. He is also claimed to have been a descendant of1469:Possible date of birth: 12 or 17 Rabi al Awal: in1202:to his lifetime, its discovery largely disproving16865:above are only the ones mentioned by name in the14608:The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book13497:

12648:

11845:On heroes, hero worship and the heroic in history11512:

11442:

11440:

11438:

11408:

10736:. Univ of North Carolina Press. pp.173–74.10558:

10434:

7625:

7601:

7540:

6902:

6842:

6021:

5784:

5762:

5760:

5721:

5637:

4452:compilations is a literal splitting of the Moon.4158:The pre-Islamic Middle East was dominated by the3492:

3271:"The Prophet Muhammad and the Muslim Army at the26465:

25438:Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources19346:, literally 'The Farthest Place-of-Prostration')17934:Mother Abiona or Amtelai the daughter of Karnebo16053:

14987:

14787:; Moussalli, Ahmad S.; Newby, Gordon D. (2009).13347:

12350:Al-Bukhari, Muhammed Ibn Ismaiel (1 June 1997).11604:

11334:"Why Islam does (not) ban images of the Prophet"11223:Effigies dei: essays on the history of religions6818:

6806:

5858:

5461:

3395:, and a transmitter of "odd tales" by the later2307:

1138:likely dated within Muhammad's lifetime between1031:for 13 years. To escape ongoing persecution, he944:forming the basis for Islamic religious belief.14290:The Expeditions: An Early Biography of Muḥammad13424:

11479:

11446:

11369:

11216:

11081:

10809:

8583:

8098:

6033:"New Light on the History of the Quranic Text?"4267:At the age of 25, Muhammad married the wealthy4131:, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated3876:, 17th-century Ottoman copy of a 14th-century (3422:

3191:

2672:

2385:In 615, Muhammad sent some of his followers to2318:Theories about Alexander the Great in the Quran1943:on the northern segment of the route to Syria.26099:Assassin's Creed: Valhalla (Echoes of History)16857:believe that there were many prophets sent by15092:

15077:

14531:

13398:

13283:; Montgomery, Mary W.; Grimme, Hubert (1906).13220:. Edinburgh University Press. pp.34–41.12535:

12214:

11435:

11365:

11363:

11361:

11132:

10942:

10592:

10590:

9145:Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia8296:

7113:

7050:

6104:: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing5757:

5467:

4530:is celebrated as a major feast throughout the2858:

1568:Begins in secret to gather followers in Mecca1027:were initially few in number, and experienced25229:

23336:

21963:

20538:

16892:

16077:

15140:

14587:. Columbia University Press. pp.39–40.13791:

12999:. Oxford University Press, USA. p.198.12917:. Edinburgh University Press. pp.24–5.12239:

12141:. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. p.11656:

11654:

11652:

11622:. Indiana University Press. pp.252–54.11488:. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp.11278:

9828:

9826:

9824:

4105:Expansion of the caliphate, 622–750CE:2894:

2401:, the daughter of one of the Quraysh chiefs,2355:. For the second query, the Qur'an speaks of2192:, servants, slaves, and other members of the2054:The financial security Muhammad enjoyed from1771:

1171:. Muslims believe it represents the words of798:

26356:Protest outside the Danish embassy in London23842:

22205:

22159:

22145:

17006:(wolf) that Jacob feared could attack Joseph16686:

16677:

16668:

16659:

16650:

16641:

16632:

16623:

16422:

16413:

16404:

16395:

16386:

16377:

16368:

16359:

16350:

16172:

16163:

16154:

16145:

16136:

16127:

16118:

16109:

14797:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World13684:(2nded.). Cambridge University Press.13610:Society and Religion from Jahiliyya to Islam12609:. Continuum International Publishing Group.12305:The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World11570:

11455:. University of Pennsylvania Press. p.11212:

11210:

11208:

11040:

10689:

10658:

9366:

5058:Arabian tribes that interacted with Muhammad4561:

4553:

3331:

3116:of others, there would have been demolished2744:, while the Medinan Muslims were dubbed the2218:) as a requirement of the Muslim community (1634:The year of sorrows: Khadija (his wife) and421:

394:

368:

321:

23:. For the Islamic view and perspective, see23778:

14742:. United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.14611:. Jewish Publication Society. p.236.14118:. Vol.1. Princeton University Press.14044:Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices13843:

13377:

13141:

12198:Encyclopedia of Sacred Places, 2nd Edition12195:

11613:

11546:Elizabeth Edwards; Kaushik Bhaumik (2008).11506:

11402:

11358:

11088:Suzanne Pinckney Stetkevych (24 May 2010).10587:

9197:Kister, "The Massacre of the Banu Quraiza".7960:

7724:

6758:

1852:

1652:(reported ascension to heaven to meet God)1264:survives as extensive excerpts in works by25243:

25236:

25222:

23343:

23329:

21970:

21956:

20545:

20531:

19364:A Mosque in the area of Medina, possibly:18678:ibn Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim18480:Current Ummah of Islam (Ummah of Muhammad)17858:(Joshua, companion and successor of Moses)16899:

16885:

16084:

16070:

15147:

15133:

13659:Female Stereotypes in Religious Traditions13523:

12349:

12138:A Concise Encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith11649:

10766:

10720:

10702:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p.84.10495:Ariffin, Syed Ahmad Iskandar Syed (2005).10446:

9821:

8819:

5913:

5879:

5352:harvnb error: no target: CITEREFWatt1964 (5327:

4116:Rashidun caliphate, 632–661CE.3445:. Islamic sources recount that during the2901:

2887:

2763:Building the religious community in Medina2019:

1794:The birth of Muhammad in the 16th-century1778:

1764:

805:

791:

53:

17225:

16091:

14932:

14907:

14579:

14558:

14464:

14316:: A Thousand Years of Western Myth-Making13901:. Smith, Elder&Company, 65, Cornhill.13507:The Life of the Prophet Muhammad Volume I13448:

13241:Believers: spiritual leaders of the world12910:

12743:Cheikh, Nadia Maria El (6 October 2015).12507:

12486:

12392:

12368:

12250:. Michigan University press. p.17.12079:

12016:

11862:

11646:Cambridge History of Islam (1970), p. 30.11205:

11094:. Indiana University Press. p.xii.10523:. Archnet.org. 2 May 2005. Archived from10458:

9929:

9079:

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8966:

8879:

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6663:

6156:

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4668:

4122:Umayyad caliphate, 661–750CE.3708:was enforced for two years. The tribe of3497:A few months after the conflict with the2908:

2808:

1752:, and death, in what is now Saudi Arabia23350:

15671:Muhammad's letters to the heads of state15030:

14836:

14817:

14601:

14511:Ṣallābī, ʻAlī Muḥammad Muḥammad (2005).14419:

14379:

14336:

14168:

14041:Nigosian, Solomon A. (29 January 2004).14040:

13819:

13299:

13048:

13020:

12989:

12959:

12931:

12669:

12462:

11986:

11802:

11776:

11708:

11417:. Vol.26. Brill. pp.234–35.11324:

11322:

11320:

11257:

11187:

11063:

11034:

11030:

10995:

10920:

10918:

10858:

10803:

10606:. John Wiley and Sons. pp.102–03.10386:

10362:

10350:

10314:

10254:

10177:

10141:

10093:

10066:

9939:. Oxford University Press. p.552.9878:

9721:

9661:

9618:

9594:

9570:

9516:

9492:

9480:

9415:

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9303:

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9119:

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9002:

8990:

8978:

8930:

8906:

8807:

8731:

8431:

8320:

8308:

8284:

8248:

8236:

8207:

8192:

8105:Jonathan M. Bloom; Sheila Blair (2009).7948:

7918:

7791:(87). Maisonneuve & Larose: 67–124.7712:

7664:

7652:

7613:

7589:

7565:

7504:

7318:

7269:

7086:

6986:

6950:

6764:

6707:

6675:

6648:

6569:

6532:

6498:

6327:

6083:

5703:

5691:

5679:

5608:

5602:

5540:

5528:

5479:

5315:

5292:

5280:

5078:List of founders of religious traditions4998:, are directly descended from Muhammad.4727:

4722:

4599:

4471:

4446:, which according to earliest available4406:

4227:

4100:

4002:built over Muhammad's tomb in the center3900:

3853:

3764:

3686:

3534:

3266:

2595:

2136:

2037:

2004:In 605, the Quraysh decided to roof the1969:

1789:

1625:

1551:

1319:

1219:

1121:

24926:Reflections on the Revolution in France14880:

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14106:

13905:

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12370:Al-Tabari, Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir12001:

11841:

11600:from the original on 24 September 2015.11566:from the original on 23 September 2015.11199:

11175:

11163:

10891:

10793:from the original on 24 September 2015.10760:

10695:

10654:from the original on 30 September 2015.10583:from the original on 24 September 2015.10494:

10338:

10290:

10266:

10242:

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10054:

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10006:

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9709:

9642:

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8942:

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8575:sfn error: no target: CITEREFWatt1961 (8555:

8395:, p.30–32, Chapter Three: Hijrah.8332:

8272:

8111:. Oxford University Press. p.76.7906:

7676:

7637:

7468:

7384:

7062:

6938:

6896:

6884:

6872:

6860:

6780:. Vol.1. Routledge. p.525.6722:

6542:. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. p.38.6250:"Glimpses of Muḥammad's Medinan decade"6208:

6126:

6027:

5977:

5873:

5715:

5570:

5534:

5473:

5401:

5321:

5298:

5186:

4515:("Poem of the Mantle") by the Egyptian3524:

3354:

2100:), which Muhammad later referred to as1939:, provided Muhammad with a job leading1107:

983:CE, Muhammad reported being visited by26466:

26361:Bombing of Danish embassy in Islamabad26085:Age of Empires III: Definitive Edition18188:(Qaddar ibn Salif and Musda' ibn Dahr)18074:Believer (Hizbil or Hizqil ibn Sabura)17878:

15006:

14857:

14660:

14649:

14625:

14307:

14283:

14211:

14190:

14176:. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company.14132:

14089:Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians14082:

14068:. State University of New York Press.14061:

14016:

14002:. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG.13971:

13947:

13926:

13867:

13603:

13544:

13524:Ibn Kathīr, Ismāʻīl ibn ʻUmar (1998).13258:

12899:

12878:

12847:

12815:

12763:

12742:

12067:

12055:

12043:

11975:Gottheil, Montgomery & Grimme 190611883:from the original on 4 September 2015.11814:

11733:

11272:

10954:

10879:

10664:

10596:

10482:

10326:

9697:

9685:

9630:

9386:

9315:

9137:

9074:

8954:

8684:

8356:

8219:

7972:

7861:, p.36, Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah.7773:

7748:

7736:

7688:

7580:, p.26, Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah.7528:

7492:

7480:

7423:, p.15, Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah.7411:, p.14, Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah.7293:

7281:

7233:

7074:

6746:

6734:

6602:

6355:from the original on 18 October 2017.6247:

6168:

6095:

6068:

5989:

5802:

5652:

5558:

5552:

5407:

5389:

4653:saw a boom of printed and illustrated3836:

3682:Muhammad after the occupation of Mecca3604:

2177:

947:Muhammad was born in approximately 57016:Founding prophet of Islam (c. 570–632)26494:7th-century Islamic religious leaders25656:The Quest for the Historical Muhammad25480:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries25217:

23324:

21977:

21951:

21708:

21476:

21109:

20526:

19956:

19544:Events, incidents, occasions or times19542:

18931:

18267:

17923:Mother Shamkhah bint Anush or Betenos17877:

17651:)' or 'Owner of the Fish (or Whale)')17432:

16932:

16919:

16880:

16065:

16052:

15128:

15088:. Vol.11 (2nded.). Brill.14486:

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14232:

14191:Phipps, William E. (6 October 2016).13992:

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13124:Muhammad: Islam's First Great General13100:Muhammad: Islam's First Great General13049:Fontaine, P. F. M. (4 October 2022).12714:

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12579:Beeston, A. F. L. (3 November 1983).12458:from the original on 22 January 2018.12437:

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10915:

10772:

10726:

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10374:

10302:

10278:

10117:

10105:

10078:

10042:

9994:

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9789:

9774:

9762:

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9582:

9555:

9540:

9456:

9444:

9432:

9267:

9056:

8748:

8443:

8260:

8023:, p.3–4, Chapter Three: Hijrah.7954:

7933:

7894:

7882:

7846:

7782:

7516:

7456:

7399:, p.6, Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah.7375:, p.2, Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah.7345:, p.1, Chapter Two: Jahiliyyah.7188:

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7038:

6962:

6794:from the original on 14 November 20126581:

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6451:

6449:

6418:(1ed.), Wiley, pp.75–90,6409:

6405:

6403:

6401:

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6293:

6204:

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5944:

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5940:

5790:

5546:

5516:

5383:

5286:

4544:may God honor him and grant him peace3865:The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries3256:

2882:

2500:Attempt to establish himself in Ta'if2254:, several of the Quraysh gathered at1894:The Oxford Handbook of Late Antiquity875:

26430:

26300:Trial of Ghazi Beji and Jabeur Mejri26210:Medieval Christian views on Muhammad25516:Captain Stormfield's Visit to Heaven25410:Muhammad: A Biography of the Prophet21477:

21110:

19875:('Before the Setting (of the Sun)')18354:People of a township in Surah Ya-Sin15225:Abu Salama Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Asad15103:. Vol.4 (2nded.). Brill.15073:. Vol.1 (2nded.). Brill.15059:

15055:. Vol.3 (2nded.). Brill.15041:

15034:Kitab Al-tabaqat Al-kabir - Volume 214928:. Vol.1 (2nded.). Brill.14914:

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14218:. University of Pennsylvania Press.13891:

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11940:

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11535:from the original on 2 January 2017.11328:

11284:

10848:from the original on 7 October 2010.10779:. John Wiley and Sons. p.165.10750:from the original on 1 January 2016.10716:from the original on 1 January 2016.10685:from the original on 1 January 2016.10671:. John Wiley and Sons. p.136.10620:from the original on 1 January 2016.10422:

10410:

9872:

9844:

9808:

9370:Kitab Al-tabaqat Al-kabir - Volume 29206:

9100:

9068:

8664:. John Wiley and Sons. p.148.8647:

8622:

8570:

8491:

8455:

8371:, p.30, Chapter Three: Hijrah.8347:, p.27, Chapter Three: Hijrah.8092:

8058:

8008:

7996:

7984:

7870:

7432:

7357:

6908:

6848:

6824:

6812:

6770:

6504:

6377:of al-Dāraquṭnī (d. 385/995) or the6193:

6056:

6001:

5948:

5885:

5730:

5596:

5413:

5395:

5347:

4936:and proclamation of himself as the "4784:Le fanatisme, ou Mahomet le Prophète4361:

3671:

3521:was captured and brutally executed.2656:took place on the 17th night of the1923:, the youngest, trained Muhammad in1710:(also known as the siege of Medina)1601:Emigration of a group of Muslims to1590:Heavy persecution of Muslims begins1344:Other important sources include the1209:

25358:Al-Shifa bi Ta'rif Huquq al-Mustafa25036:The End of History and the Last Man24946:Elements of the Philosophy of Right15093:Wensinck, A.J.; Jomier, J. (1990).15078:Wensinck, A.J.; Rippen, A. (2002).14444:Roggema, Barbara (31 August 2008).14382:Muslim Societies in African History13163:

13156:The Encyclopaedia of Islam: Vol. 1-12721:Muhammad: A Very Short Introduction12673:The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad12487:Armstrong, Karen (28 August 2007).11910:, vol. 24 no. 2, 2018, pp. 256–279.11586:. John Wiley and Sons. p.56.11484:Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road11451:Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road10835:

9333:

6998:

6254:The Cambridge Companion to Muhammad4928:for his perceived appropriation of4554:

3802:, got 100 camels individually. The2585:

2334:to seek the opinions of the Jewish2012:, when it was time to reattach the1533:, his first daughter, followed by:991:from God. In 613, Muhammad started963:. His father, Abdullah, the son of860:

422:

395:

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322:

13:

25872:Islam: What the West Needs to Know14818:Williams, John Alden, ed. (1961).14559:Schroeder, Eric (1 January 2002).13972:Murray, Alexander (3 March 2011).13927:Morgan, Diane (12 November 2009).13559:Johnson, Scott Fitzgerald (2015).13410:. Belknap Press; Revised edition.12746:Women, Islam, and Abbasid Identity12438:Ardic, Nurullah (21 August 2012).12417:Anthony, Sean W. (21 April 2020).11431:from the original on 11 July 2012.9156:

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6446:

6398:

6199:

5937:

5736:

5001:

4964:as he was frequently portrayed in4404:are required to recite the creed.3171:Muhammad expelled from Medina the2669:believe in the Messenger of God".2570:. Muhammad then sent a message to1809:is believed to be in the month of1555:Qur'anic revelation begins in the14:

26615:

25992:Saturday Night Live (May 9, 2015)25642:The Cartoons that Shook the World25487:History of the Prophets and Kings19900:('Before the rising of the Sun')15590:(Khadija's slave and Adopted son)15109:

14156:from the original on 14 June 201314065:Muhammad and the Origins of Islam13143:Gibb, Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen12879:Deming, David (10 January 2014).12177:from the original on 19 June 201611390:from the original on 15 June 201311305:from the original on 14 June 201311239:from the original on 15 June 201311108:from the original on 15 June 201311010:The Unicode Standard, Version 5.210974:from the original on 24 June 20178125:from the original on 15 June 20137333:, p.32, Chapter One: Mecca.7203:, p.31, Chapter One: Mecca.7143:, p.30, Chapter One: Mecca.6977:, p.20, Chapter One: Mecca.6839:, p.18, Chapter One: Mecca.5773:, pp. 26–27. UK Islamic Academy.5665:Welch, Moussalli & Newby 20095523:Kloppenborg & Hanegraaff 20185204:Welch, Moussalli & Newby 20094841:'s 'extraordinary' poet-prophet,4807:Zoroaster, Confucius and Muhammad4511:. Among Arabic odes to Muhammad,4372:Following the attestation to the3336:Upon receiving a report that the3243:, a wealthy half-Jewish man from2842:, following his narration of the2184:Persecution of Muslims by Meccans1501:His grandfather transfers him to1086:), found in transmitted reports (1029:hostility from Meccan polytheists119:8 June 632 CE (11 AH; aged 61–62)26440:

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25417:Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time25006:The Open Society and Its Enemies23167:The Closing of the American Mind23087:Civilization and Its Discontents23067:A Vindication of Natural Society21932:

21931:

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21456:Schools of islamic jurisprudence20721:Timeline of the history of Islam20552:

20067:Heavenly food of Jesus' apostles18503:(Emigrants from Mecca to Medina)14858:Willis, John Ralph, ed. (2013).14837:Williams, Rebecca (2 May 2013).14346:. Augsburg Fortress Publishers.13170:A History of Palestine, 634–109913127:. University of Oklahoma Press.13103:. University of Oklahoma Press.12795:Cole, W. Owen (1 January 1996).12514:Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time12490:Muhammad: A Prophet for Our Time12189:

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11913:

11900:

11887:

11856:

11848:. London: James Fraser. p.11835:

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11521:. I. B. Tauris. pp.46–47.11473:

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11078:, Encyclopædia Britannica, p. 9.11069:

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9360:

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8026:

7819:

6695:Retrieved 21 October 2014 (GMT).6227:10.1111/j.1478-0542.2007.00395.x5587:

5578:

5507:

5493:See for example Marco Schöller,5487:

5452:

5362:

5335:

5306:

5271:

5262:

5245:

4675:Early social changes under Islam4380:. Every Muslim proclaims in the4110:Muhammad, 622–632CE.4043:), the first two Muslim caliphs4023:above the tomb was built by the3980:

3905:The death of Muhammad. From the2751:

2652:, while the Isra' from Mecca to2397:. Among those who departed were2322:The leaders of the Quraysh sent1851:. He was also known as al-Amin (822:

772:

760:

256:Rasul Allah ('Messenger of God')59:"Muhammad, the Messenger of God"26604:Characters in the Divine Comedy23813:Family as a model for the state21797:List of ex-Muslim organisations19709:(The Sacred or Forbidden Month)19114:('Sanctuary (which is) Secure')18470:Ya'juj and Ma'juj/Gog and Magog17144:', 'beast of prey' or 'hunter')14739:Muhammad: Prophet and Statesman14650:Towghi, Malek Muhammad (1991).14405:. University Press of Florida.14212:Powers, David S. (8 May 2014).13729:. University of Chicago Press.13333:. University of Chicago Press.13259:Gordon, Matthew (30 May 2005).11549:Visual sense: a cultural reader11517:. In Pedram Khosronejad (ed.).10844:. Ansariyan Publications, Qom.10435:Borup, Fibiger & Kühle 20197299:

7206:

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6992:

6752:

6681:

6596:

6587:

6526:

6373:of Ibn Mājah (d. 273/887), the6321:

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6171:Islam: a worldwide encyclopedia6162:

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5995:

5925:

5901:from the original on 5 May 20155226:

5213:

5073:List of biographies of Muhammad4400:itself. Non-Muslims wishing to4250:pre-hijra (emigration) in Mecca2875:List of expeditions of Muhammad1394:

1334:, dated within his lifetime in1096:), are also upheld and used as26504:7th-century military personnel25893:Muhammad: The Messenger of God25163:Separation of church and state25061:Collectivism and individualism25016:The Origins of Totalitarianism19013:Salsabīl (A river in Paradise)18906:at the time of Abraham and Lot18370:(People of Sodom and Gomorrah)18037:(King Ar-Rayyān ibn Al-Walīd))17529:(Joachim the father of Maryam)16933:

16920:

15707:Sacred Relics (Topkapı Palace)15560:Al-‘Abbas ibn ‘Abd al-Muttalib15037:. Pakistan Historical Society.15016:. Princeton University Press.14862:. Vol.1. New York City:14384:. Cambridge University Press.14092:. Princeton University Press.14062:Peters, F. E. (6 April 1994).13850:Mohammed and the Rise of Islam13829:. Cambridge University Press.13777:. W. W. Norton & Company.13705:. Cambridge University Press.13682:A History of Islamic Societies13589:. Cambridge University Press.13458:. Princeton University Press.13384:. Cambridge University Press.13361:The Cambridge History of Islam13265:. Greenwood Publishing Group.13194:The Life and Times of Muhammad13173:. Cambridge University Press.12996:The Oxford Dictionary of Islam12676:. Cambridge University Press.12585:. Cambridge University Press.11954:The Cambridge History of Islam11790:Talk Of Napoleon At St. Helena11722:The Cambridge History of Islam11697:The Cambridge History of Islam11285:Safi, Omid (2 November 2010).11221:. In Dirk van der Plas (ed.).9373:. Pakistan Historical Society.8514:The Cambridge History of Islam7554:The Cambridge History of Islam7307:The Cambridge History of Islam6209:Hoyland, Robert (March 2007).5958:Encyclopædia Britannica Online5895:Encyclopædia Britannica Online5859:Holt, Lambton & Lewis 19775462:Holt, Lambton & Lewis 19775196:

5180:

5131:

5098:Muhammad's views on Christians4581:, leaving a scar on his face.3880:) manuscript (Edinburgh codex)3666:

3600:pilgrimage in the coming year.3493:Incidents with the Banu Fazara3369:, the Quraysh military leader3275:", from a 1595 edition of the3236:) being retained by Muhammad.2283:clan, known by the Muslims as1629:Banu Hashim clan boycott ends1303:criticized by Islamic scholars61:inscribed on the gates of the1:

25879:Muhammad: Legacy of a Prophet25677:The Men Who Murdered Mohammed25614:Seeing Islam as Others Saw It25551:Muhammad: The "Banned" Images25380:Latin biographies of Muhammad25203:Category:Political philosophy25076:Critique of political economy23057:Oration on the Dignity of Man18932:

15548:Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib15177:Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Muttalib14514:The Noble Life of the Prophet13933:. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.13408:A History of the Arab Peoples12634:. University of Texas Press.12394:Al-Tabari, Muhammad ibn Jarir12303:. In John L. Esposito (ed.).12196:C. Brockman, Norbert (2011).11291:. HarperCollins. p.32.11003:"Arabic Presentation Forms-A"10933:Ordoni (1990), pp. 32, 42–44.9887:by Ayatullah Ja'far Subhani,7626:Ibn Kathir & Gassick 20007602:Ibn Kathir & Gassick 20007541:Ibn Kathir & Gassick 20006777:Medieval Islamic civilization6523:. Retrieved 15 February 2017.6262:10.1017/ccol9780521886079.0046106:. Darwin Press. p.132.6102:Narratives of Islamic Origins5620:Encyclopaedia of Islam Online5119:

5063:Diplomatic career of Muhammad4920:contemporaries for preaching4540:ṣallā llahu ʿalayhi wa-sallam4331:, who died at two years old.4082:

4079:—a ritual visit—to the tomb.3914:

3571:, not to fight. He then sent2821:Diplomatic career of Muhammad2308:Quraysh delegation to Yathrib1985:

1446:

1405:

1335:

1139:

1114:Historiography of early Islam1047:, marks the beginning of the881:

82:

26220:Muhammad in the Baháʼí Faith25579:Muhammad in World Scriptures25310:Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari25101:Institutional discrimination25096:History of political thought23828:Negative and positive rights23127:The Society of the Spectacle21782:Apostasy in Islam by country21659:Liberalism and progressivism19805:(The Afternoon or the Night)19703:12 months: Four holy months19255:('Place-of-Landing Blessed')18848:(s) or People of the Injil)18186:Slayers of Ṣāliḥ's she-camel17715:names and titles of Muhammad17433:

16960:found in the Quran, such as16054:Articles related to Muhammad15676:Names and titles of Muhammad15154:

14429:. New York Review of Books.14361:Robin, Christian J. (2012).14047:. Indiana University Press.13637:. K. Paul, Trench, Trübner.12767:Review of Religious Research12749:. Harvard University Press.12472:. Univ of California Press.12423:. Univ of California Press.12335:. Harvard University Press.11756:compostio omnium dissidiorum11413:. In Gulru Necipoglu (ed.).10924:Nicholas Awde (2000), p. 10.10696:Cornell, Vincent J. (2007).10499:. Penerbit UTM. p.88.8589:Rodinson (2002), pp. 168–69.6605:Islam: The Basics (Volume 1)6002:Bora, Fozia (22 July 2015).5631:

5237:Emory C. Bogle (1998), p. 7.5191:Muslim conquest of Palestine5012:Muhammad in the Baháʼí Faith4892:

4213:

4186:) were disaffected from the4053:Muslims believe awaits Jesus3994:("the Prophet's mosque") in3423:Invasion of the Banu Qurayza3365:With the help of the exiled3192:Conflicts with Jewish tribes2719:, Muhammad asked his cousin2600:Quranic inscriptions on the2104:; it was not a naturalistic1744:

1731:

1717:

1703:

1690:

1677:

1659:

1645:

1611:

1597:

1586:

1575:

1525:

1511:

1497:

1483:

1465:

1451:

1419:

1358:Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi1293:

1278:

1204:Western revisionist theories1057:marched on the city of Mecca1011:) is the right way of life (957:Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib263:Names and titles of Muhammad223:Abdullah ibn Abd al-Muttalib7:

26589:Prophets in the Druze faith26277:Everybody Draw Mohammed Day25971:Muawiya, Hassan and Hussein25921:The Knight and the Princess25111:Justification for the state24896:Two Treatises of Government19574:(Flood of the Great Dam of17895:Adam's immediate relatives15212:Foster brothers and sisters15031:Sa'd, Muḥammad Ibn (1972).14881:Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007).14718:. Oxford University Press.14694:. Oxford University Press.14269:. Oxford University Press.14142:. Oxford University Press.13805:. Oxford University Press.13753:. Oxford University Press.13565:. Oxford University Press.13483:. Oxford University Press.13473:Ibn Hisham, ʻAbd al-Malik;13244:. Oxford University Press.13076:Muhammad: A Short Biography12697:A New Introduction to Islam12652:Religious Diversity in Asia12275:Adil, Hajjah Amina (2002).11141:, Encyclopædia Britannica,10903:Asma Barlas (2002), p. 125.9367:Ibn Sa'd, Muḥammad (1972).9089:Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an8660:Zeitlin, Irving M. (2007).6693:10.6084/m9.figshare.11868336593:Louis Jacobs (1995), p. 2725344:Rodinson (2002), pp. 209–115251:The aforementioned Islamic5045:

4073:

3950:

3907:

3551:, or direction for prayer (3340:were planning an attack on3163:of the Aws Manat tribe and3090:Military career of Muhammad2871:Military career of Muhammad2859:Beginning of armed conflict2287:, went to Muhammad's uncle2127:but an angel visiting him.2026:Muhammad's first revelation1424:Timeline of Muhammad's life1206:about the Quran's origins.1128:Birmingham Quran manuscript928:. He is believed to be the871:

672:Hadith of the pen and paper10:

26622:

25964:Muhammad: The Final Legacy25886:Muhammad: The Last Prophet25621:Studies in major religions23781:Bellum omnium contra omnes21709:

19781:('Remembrance', including19427:(literally 'The Barrier')18455:('Companions of the Wood')18344:Companions of the Elephant18293:People of the Burnt Garden18268:

17657:('Companion of the Whale')17253:('The Trustworthy Spirit')16029:Mosque with the two Qiblas15491:Aqaba pledge of allegiance15047:"Ḥalīma Bint Abī Ḏh̲uʾayb"14971:Turkiye Diyanet Foundation13551:Mahomet and His Successors12858:Cambridge University Press12267:

11897:, Routledge (2009), p. 93.11869:. Harvard UP. p.48.11513:Christiane Gruber (2011).11409:Christiane Gruber (2009).11376:. Brill. pp.207–09.11225:. Brill. pp.119–24.10818:Barbara Freyer Stowasser,7114:Wensinck & Rippen 20027051:Wensinck & Jomier 19906539:Muhammad: Prophet of Islam6159:, p.3, Introduction.6130:In the Shadow of the Sword5767:Muhammad Mustafa Al-A'zami5468:Hourani & Ruthven 20035008:Judaism's view of Muhammad5005:

4983:

4902:

4896:

4672:

4565:

4365:

4217:

4086:

3858:Anonymous illustration of3846:

3840:

3754:

3675:

3608:

3528:

3426:

3358:

3260:

3195:

3087:

2868:

2862:

2818:

2812:

2755:

2680:

2589:

2503:

2487:criterion of embarrassment2374:

2311:

2263:and performing the ritual2181:

2023:

1409:

1398:

1313:

1268:and to a lesser extent by1213:

1175:revealed by the archangel1152:

1111:

1033:sent some of his followers987:in the cave and receiving969:Abd al-Muttalib ibn Hashim904:to preach and confirm the18:

26415:

26369:

26317:

26267:

26260:

26152:

26076:

26022:

25937:

25930:

25813:

25783:

25753:

25725:

25697:

25544:Kalki Avatar and Muhammad25509:Book of Muhammad's Ladder25496:

25318:

25255:

25198:

25048:

24817:

24465:

24198:

24078:

23997:

23909:

23900:

23766:

23600:

23529:

23358:

23305:

23209:

23197:Intellectuals and Society23147:The Culture of Narcissism23038:

22706:

22498:

22447:

22376:

22290:

22283:

22223:

21985:

21915:

21805:

21772:

21722:

21718:

21704:

21631:

21598:

21570:Geography and cartography21545:

21492:

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21472:

21315:

21237:

21184:

21133:

21129:

21105:

20975:

20857:

20817:

20700:

20652:

20576:

20572:

20561:

20510:

20469:

20397:

20320:

20281:

20230:

20196:

20160:

20133:

20055:

20048:('Mother of the Book(s)')19963:

19957:

19952:

19918:

19752:

19723:

19692:

19674:(The Sabbath or Saturday)19652:

19600:

19596:

19549:

19538:

19399:

19288:

19235:

19175:

19020:

18968:, literally 'The Garden')18938:

18927:

18857:Qissis (Christian priest)18773:

18709:

18636:

18560:

18391:

18278:

18274:

18263:

18195:

18131:

18062:

18001:

17888:

17884:

17873:

17832:

17783:

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17428:

17391:

17348:

17303:

17155:

17086:

16984:

16977:

16973:

16939:

16928:

16915:

16907:People and things in the16851:

16687:

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16678:

16676:

16669:

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16658:

16651:

16649:

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16640:

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16103:

16099:

16059:

16006:

15955:

15904:

15897:

15866:

15839:

15816:Al-Muwahib al-Ladunniyyah15800:

15738:

15731:

15694:

15623:

15504:

15496:Muhammad's visit to Ta'if15451:

15423:

15378:

15369:Zayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi15359:Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad15324:

15315:

15242:

15219:Hamza ibn Abd al-Muttalib15211:

15190:

15169:

15162:

14866:. pp.vii–xi, 3–26.14809:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (14662:Waqidi, Muḥammad ibn Umar14320:New York University Press14197:. Bloomsbury Publishing.13151:Bosworth, Clifford Edmund13079:. Oneworld Publications.12833:10.1017/S0041977X0004901612317:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (12221:Hitti, Philip K. (1928).12200:. ABC-CLIO. p.259.12095:, Encyclopaedia of Islam.10912:Armstrong (1992), p. 157.10824:Encyclopedia of the Quran10559:Al-Haqqani, Shaykh Adil;8689:. Routledge. p.79.8552:Glubb (2002), pp. 179–86.8181:Encyclopedia of the Quran8164:Encyclopedia of the Quran6637:Encyclopedia of the Quran6470:10.1002/9781118638477.ch26424:10.1002/9781118638477.ch46133:. Doubleday. p.42.5499:Encyclopedia of the Quran4979:

4562:Appearance and depictions4423:

4356:

4305:Umm Kulthum bint Muhammad4264:, as wife or concubine).4155:, or "Wars of Apostasy".3998:, Saudi Arabia, with the3332:Raid on the Banu Mustaliq3085:

2922:

2506:Muhammad's visit to Ta'if2353:Seven Sleepers of Ephesus1756:

1622:

1548:

1429:

1422:

1309:

429:

402:

376:

329:

305:

296:

271:

249:

238:

215:

202:

189:

132:

108:

78:

73:

52:

45:

38:

29:Muhammad (disambiguation)26599:The Fourteen Infallibles26509:7th-century Asian people26184:Jewish views on Muhammad25663:The Truth About Muhammad25586:Qissat Shakarwati Farmad24986:The Revolt of the Masses23187:The Malaise of Modernity23137:The History of Sexuality22236:Catholic social teaching21874:Islamic view of miracles18904:Mesopotamian polytheists18852:Ruhban (Christian monks)18726:(People of the Verandah)18603:People of Sabaʾ or Sheba18406:(literally 'The Romans')18326:Companions of Noah's Ark18243:Rahmah the wife of Ayyub18172:(Korah, cousin of Moses)18092:Magicians of the Pharaoh17994:(Muhammad's adopted son)17286:(Angel of Death, Azrael)17070:(fish or whale) of Jonah15857:Shama'il al-Muhammadiyya15542:Hamza ibn Abdul-Muttalib15230:Abu Sufyan ibn al-Harith14969:(in Turkish). Istanbul:14496:. Taylor & Francis.14380:Robinson, David (2004).14174:Muhammad, Prophet of God13906:Muranyi, Miklos (1998).13699:Lapidus, Ira M. (2012).12938:Islam: The Straight Path12848:Curtis, Michael (2009).12631:Islam: Origin and Belief12628:Bogle, Emory C. (1998).11919:Watt, Bell (1995) p. 18.11842:Carlyle, Thomas (1841).11480:Johan Elverskog (2010).11447:Johan Elverskog (2010).11217:Kees Wagtendonk (1987).10870:Bullough (1998), p. 119.10569:. ISCA. pp.65–66.9911:Rodinson (2002), p. 261.8503:Rodinson (2002), p. 164.8060:Watt, William Montgomery6458:"Western Hadith Studies"5950:Watt, William Montgomery5124:

5103:Muhammad's views on Jews4960:, or portrayed him as a4845:'s nation builder (...)4766:Henri de Boulainvilliers4546:) or the English phrase4051:, and an empty one that4037:Suleiman the Magnificent3896:

3429:Invasion of Banu Qurayza3198:Muhammad's views on Jews1828:, someone who professed1805:about the year 570, and1324:Early manuscript of the1148:

1090:) and in his biography (419:('Seal of the Prophets')46:

26489:7th-century Arab people26484:6th-century Arab people26179:Historicity of Muhammad26092:Assassin's Creed Mirage25985:Once Upon a Time... Man25950:Islam: The Untold Story24966:The Communist Manifesto23892:Tyranny of the majority23803:Consent of the governed23267:Philosophy of education21644:Creationism (evolution)20387:Forbidden fruit of Adam19857:('Decline of the Sun')19745:(The Lesser Pilgrimage)19475:Barrier of Dhul-Qarnayn18900:at the time of Muhammad18874:Ahbār (Jewish scholars)18331:Aṣḥāb al-Kahf war-Raqīm18227:the companion of Joshua17061:(female ant) of Solomon15702:Possessions of Muhammad15666:Family tree of Muhammad15532:(son-in-law and cousin)15307:Maymunah bint al-Harith15203:Halima bint Abi Dhu'ayb14884:The Historical Muhammad14565:. Courier Corporation.14243:Oxford University Press13802:Antisemitism: A History13325:Hodgson, Marshall G. S.13197:. Cooper Square Press.12973:Oxford University Press12943:Oxford University Press12726:Oxford University Press12551:, eds. (27 June 2002).10773:Clark, Malcolm (2011).8662:The Historical Muhammad6521:Encyclopedia Britannica6516:9 February 2017 at the6305:Oxford University Press5240:Rodinson (2002), p. 71.5223:cited in EoI; Muhammad.5108:Possessions of Muhammad5083:List of notable Hijazis4926:Jewish tribes of Arabia4874:William Montgomery Watt4872:Recent writers such as4681:William Montgomery Watt4269:Khadijah bint Khuwaylid4252:(from 570 to 622), and4188:Eastern Orthodox Church3973:

2648:, 18 months before the2241:him to perform miracles2020:Beginnings of the Quran1905:Halimah bint Abi Dhuayb1416:Family tree of Muhammad1257:Life of God's Messenger1224:An early manuscript of1118:Historicity of Muhammad932:within Islam, with the884:570 – 8 June 632481:After Conquest of Mecca288:Family tree of Muhammad281:('Family of the House')26215:Muhammad and the Bible25858:Islam: Empire of Faith25745:Talaʽ al-Badru ʽAlayna23843:

23793:Clash of civilizations23779:

22206:

22160:

22146:

21889:Persecution of Muslims21792:List of former Muslims20726:Succession to Muhammad19999:(Scroll(s) of Abraham)19991:(The Book of Muhammad)19501:Cave of Seven Sleepers19324:, literally 'Place of19212:Al-Buqʿah Al-Mubārakah18588:Companions of the Rass18489:Companions of Muhammad18335:Companions of the Cave17270:Angel of the Trumpet (15686:Muhammad and the Bible15661:Tala' al Badru 'Alayna15572:Abd Allah ibn al-Abbas15354:Ruqayyah bint Muhammad15339:Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad15252:Khadija bint Khuwaylid15100:Encyclopaedia of Islam15085:Encyclopaedia of Islam15070:Encyclopaedia of Islam15052:Encyclopaedia of Islam14944:Encyclopaedia of Islam14925:Encyclopaedia of Islam14908:Encyclopaedia of Islam14766:Encyclopaedia of Islam14399:Rodgers, Russ (2012).14338:Reynolds, Gabriel Said14134:Peters, Francis Edward14108:Peters, Francis Edward14084:Peters, Francis Edward14023:Encyclopaedia of Islam13877:. Simon and Schuster.13426:Howard-Johnston, James11815:Younos, Farid (2010).11684:Encyclopedia of Ethics11052:Encyclopaedia of Islam10561:Kabbani, Shaykh Hisham10547:Encyclopaedia of Islam10207:Encyclopaedia of Islam9229:Encyclopaedia of Islam8685:Faizer, Rizwi (2010).8634:Maulana Muhammad Ali,6603:Turner, Colin (2005).6169:Çakmak, Cenap (2017).5139:Muhammad ibn Abd Allah5088:Muhammad and the Bible4909:Criticism of the Quran4805:published in 1787 his4749:

4669:Islamic social reforms4613:

4590:depictions of Muhammad4577:. The wound was later4568:Depictions of Muhammad4504:

4427:

4317:Abd-Allah ibn Muhammad4301:Ruqayyah bint Muhammad4245:

4206:, and established the4124:

4097:Early Muslim conquests4089:Succession to Muhammad3968:

3921:

3881:

3770:

3700:

3556:

3531:Treaty of al-Hudaybiya3447:preceding Meccan siege3409:accusation of adultery3285:

3135:

2827:Constitution of Medina2815:Constitution of Medina2809:Constitution of Medina2699:second pledge of Aqaba2609:

2533:Muhammad then went to2471:incident was reported2377:Migration to Abyssinia2301:

2150:

2051:

2000:

1976:Rashid-al-Din Hamadani1960:Fakhita bint Abi Talib1888:viceroy in the former1798:

1362:Abd ar-Rahman al-Nasai1341:

1287:of Waqidi's secretary1236:

1185:Muslim victory at Badr1145:

1053:Constitution of Medina667:Companions of Muhammad505:Milestones and records27:. For other uses, see26584:Prophets of the Quran26559:Founders of religions26554:Entering heaven alive26549:7th-century diplomats26499:7th-century merchants26167:Criticism of Muhammad25459:Shama'il Muhammadiyah25344:Al-Bidaya wa'l-Nihaya23808:Divine right of kings23272:Philosophy of history23262:Philosophy of culture23157:A Conflict of Visions21688:Conversion to mosques21555:Alchemy and chemistry20240:(literally 'lamps'):20153:statue) of Israelites20086:(Casket of Shekhinah)19588:Treaty of Hudaybiyyah19435:(Black Stone) &19215:('The Blessed Place')18683:Daughters of Muhammad18673:Household of Muhammad18649:Household of Abraham18497:(literally 'Helpers')17952:Disciples (including17612:the son of Zechariah)17201:(Honourable Scribes)17189:Bearers of the Throne16093:Prophets in the Quran15631:Muhammad in the Quran15438:Splitting of the Moon15297:Ramla bint Abi Sufyan14466:Rosenwein, Barbara H.13957:. Lutterworth Press.13845:Margoliouth, David S.13769:Lewis, David Levering13656:(24 September 2018).13654:Hanegraaff, Wouter J.13634:The Religion of Islám13503:Gassick, Dr Trevor Le13450:Humphreys, R. Stephen13189:Glubb, Sir John Bagot12606:In search of Muhammad12246:Dana, Nissim (2008).12017:Buhl & Welch 199311866:The Lives of Muhammad11552:. Berg. p.344.10992:Farah (1994), p. 135.10665:Weston, Mark (2008).10640:. Brill. p.22.10459:Buhl & Welch 199310281:, p.344–5, 359.9898:referencing Sirah by9863:Lings (1987), p. 292.9832:Lings (1987), p. 291.9186:Muhammad and the Jews8717:Buhl & Welch 19938381:Buhl & Welch 19938147:Buhl & Welch 19937768:Buhl & Welch 19937445:Buhl & Welch 19937258:Buhl & Welch 19937221:, 154, in Guillaume,7173:, 153, in Guillaume,6924:Buhl & Welch 19936664:Buhl & Welch 19936501:, pp.xi, 19–20.6127:Holland, Tom (2012).6029:Lumbard, Joseph E. B.5844:Buhl & Welch 19935155:Last Prophet of Islam5053:Ashtiname of Muhammad5022:Manifestations of God4914:Criticism of Muhammad4899:Criticism of Muhammad4793:Jean-Jacques Rousseau4731:

4723:European appreciation4661:. Reproduced through4603:

4475:

4444:splitting of the Moon4410:

4327:bore him a son named4276:, a Muslim widow, or4231:

4218:Further information:4104:

4087:Further information:3958:

3904:

3868:, depicting Muhammad3857:

3794:and two of his sons,3768:

3690:

3661:Zaynab bint al-Harith3538:

3449:, the Quraysh leader3433:On the exact day the3270:

3196:Further information:3112:

3088:Further information:2819:Further information:2673:Migration to Medina (2599:

2297:

2140:

2110:transcendent presence2041:

1973:

1813:. He belonged to the1793:

1750:event of Ghadir Khumm1748:Farewell pilgrimage,1723:Treaty of Hudaybiyyah1487:Death of his mother,1455:Death of his father,1323:

1246:The earliest written1232:l-Sirah al-Nabawiyyah1223:

1196:Birmingham manuscript1192:Muhammad's companions1155:Muhammad in the Quran1125:

567:Splitting of the Moon166:24.46750°N 39.61139°E26386:2020 stabbing attack26351:Akkari-Laban dossier26049:Cartoon Wars Part II26006:The Life of Muhammad25865:Innocence of Muslims25804:Mahomet the Imposter25373:Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum25365:Al-Sira Al-Nabawiyya25351:Al-Khasa'is al-Kubra24956:Democracy in America24335:political philosophy24318:political philosophy24133:political philosophy23962:political philosophy23872:Separation of powers23833:Night-watchman state23818:Monopoly on violence23352:Political philosophy23277:Political philosophy23077:Democracy in America21414:Ma malakat aymanukum21006:Association football20020:(Scroll(s) of Moses)19898:Qabl ṭulūʿ ash-Shams19615:('the Confederates')19603:military expeditions19378:The Prophet's Mosque19336:('The Sacred Grove')19132:(Station of Abraham)18947:Al-Arḍ Al-Muqaddasah18623:('Companions of the18422:(Sodom and Gomorrah)18414:(Children of Israel)18109:Moses' sister-in-law18088:, who adopted Moses)18031:, Qatafir or Qittin)18010:Brothers (including17756:He who spoke to God)17079:(she-camel) of Ṣāliḥ17051:sleepers of the cave17019:) of the Abyssinians15830:Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum15536:Ja'far ibn Abi Talib15406:Umm Kulthum bint Ali15349:Zainab bint Muhammad15344:Ibrahim ibn Muhammad15287:Jawairia bint Harith15272:Zaynab bint Khuzayma14822:. George Braziller.14635:. Prometheus Books.14581:Spellberg, Denise A.14493:The Life of Muhammad14468:, ed. (3 May 2018).14136:(10 November 2010).14020:(19 December 2013).13909:The Life of Muhammad13793:Lindemann, Albert S.13750:The Arabs in History13505:(1 September 2000).13167:(27 February 1997).13147:Donzel, Emeri J. van12900:Dibble, Roy (1926).12716:Brown, Jonathan A.C.11965:Lewis (1993), p. 45.11734:Warraq, Ibn (2007).11667:8 April 2010 at the11614:Ali Boozari (2010).11578:D. Fairchild Ruggles11288:Memories of Muhammad10820:Wives of the Prophet9902:, vol. II, page 409.9343:The Life of Muhammad8636:Muhammad The Prophet8598:Lewis (2002), p. 44.8561:Lewis (2002), p. 41.8072:. pp.116–117.8049:(London, 1955), 193.8047:The Life of Muhammad6633:Names of the Prophet6631:Jean-Louis Déclais,6329:Jonathan, A.C. Brown5887:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein5706:, pp.38, 41–3.4938:Seal of the Prophets4329:Ibrahim ibn Muhammad4309:Zainab bint Muhammad4254:post-hijra in Medina4149:Eastern Roman Empire3706:truce of Hudaybiyyah3640:Muhammad ibn Maslama3525:Treaty of Hudaybiyya3467:Battle of the Trench3361:Battle of the Trench3355:Battle of the Trench3007:1st Daumat al-Jandal2522:, who succeeded the2424:before the event of2092:spirit of revelation2030:History of the Quran1878:Year of the Elephant1708:Battle of the Trench1618:clan boycott begins1354:Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj1289:Ibn Sa'd al-Baghdadi1108:Biographical sources1025:Muhammad's followers989:his first revelation955:. He was the son of930:Seal of the Prophets877:[mʊˈħæm.mæd]779:Biography portal210:Children of Muhammad26519:Angelic visionaries26287:Number of the beast26282:Lars Vilks drawings26042:Cartoon Wars Part I26013:Understanding Islam25943:If he were among us25649:The Jewel of Medina25600:Romance of Muhammad25146:Right-wing politics25026:A Theory of Justice24996:The Road to Serfdom24916:The Social Contract23623:Christian democracy23117:One-Dimensional Man19639:Expedition of Tabuk19583:Farewell Pilgrimage19333:Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām19252:Munzalanm-Mubārakan19071:Al-Mashʿar Al-Ḥarām19046:Iram of the Pillars18349:People of al-Ukhdūd18301:(Companions of the17760:Ibrāhīm Khalīlullāh17027:Domesticated donkey16997:(cow) of Israelites16019:Al-Masjid an-Nabawi15578:Abu Sufyan ibn Harb15469:Farewell Pilgrimage15302:Safiyya bint Huyayy15061:Watt, W. Montgomery15043:Watt, W. Montgomery14734:Watt, W. Montgomery14710:Watt, W. Montgomery14704:. ASIN: B000IUA52A.14686:Watt, W. Montgomery14603:Stillman, Norman A.14287:(15 October 2015).14128:. ASIN: B0012385Z6.14018:Netton, Ian Richard13799:(28 October 2010).13771:(12 January 2009).13475:Ibn Ishaq, Muhammad13303:(4 February 2014).13293:Kopelman Foundation13289:Jewish Encyclopedia13121:(22 October 2014).13119:Gabriel, Richard A.13095:Gabriel, Richard A.12817:Conrad, Lawrence I.12694:(17 October 2003).12545:Bosworth, C. Edmund12466:(25 October 2022).12464:Arjomand, Said Amir12019:, pp.360–376.11793:(1903), pp. 279–80.11275:, pp.159–161.11139:Seyyed Hossein Nasr10943:Bearman et al. 20029847:, pp.274–275.9401:, pp.211–212.9103:, pp.170–172.8822:, Vol. 5, no. 4037.8494:, pp.112–114.8297:Schacht et al. 19987028:on 3 December 2004.6584:, pp.286–287.4996:Yusuf Abu al-Haggag4974:ownership of slaves4930:Biblical narratives4789:Essai sur les mœurs4584:However, since the4528:Muhammad's birthday4238:Al-Masjid an-Nabawi4129:Umar ibn al-Khattab4060:Saud bin Abdul-Aziz4013:al-Masjid an-Nabawi3992:Al-Masjid an-Nabawi3874:Farewell Pilgrimage3843:Farewell Pilgrimage3837:Farewell pilgrimage3761:Expedition of Tabuk3644:Safiyya bint Huyayy3605:Invasion of Khaybar3181:Abd-Allah ibn Ubaiy3106:Masjid al-Qiblatayn2578:, the chief of the2328:Uqba ibn Abi Mu'ayt2178:Opposition in Mecca1899:Muhammad's father,1350:Muhammad al-Bukhari1216:Prophetic biography1061:Farewell Pilgrimage900:, he was a prophet723:Al-Masjid an-Nabawi488:Farewell Pilgrimage423:خَاتَم ٱلنَّبِيِّين161: / 26293:The Satanic Verses26035:Super Best Friends25907:The Lady of Heaven25628:The Satanic Verses25565:Demystifying Islam25558:Dala'il al-Khayrat25431:Muhammad at Medina25387:Storia de Mahometh25268:Aniconism in Islam25158:Political violence25153:Political theology25136:Left-wing politics25131:Political spectrum23237:Cultural pessimism23232:Cultural criticism22131:National character21894:Quran and miracles21813:Criticism of Islam21527:Geometric patterns21379:Gender segregation20967:Non-denominational20094:Trumpet of Israfil19840:('The Late-Night')19707:Ash-Shahr Al-Ḥarām19453:(Cave of the Bull)19438:Al-Hijr of Isma'il19350:Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām19042:Iram dhāt al-ʿImād19027:(excluding Madyan)18950:('The Holy Land')18898:Meccan polytheists18836:People of the Book18694:Household of Salih18669:Household of Moses18617:(people of Ṣāliḥ)18318:Disciples of Jesus18290:People of Paradise18082:Āsiyá bint Muzāḥim17971:People of Solomon17931:People of Abraham17911:Believer of Ya-Sin17879:People of Prophets17577:(Jethro, Reuel or17384:('Rebellious one')17108:Beast of the Earth15978:Mina, Saudi Arabia15884:Dala'il al-Khayrat15583:Waraqah ibn Nawfal15411:Umamah bint Zainab15334:Qasim ibn Muhammad14715:Muhammad at Medina14314:Muhammad in Europe14285:Rāshid, Maʿmar ibn14245:. pp.17–54.13951:(1 January 2018).13652:Kloppenborg, Ria;13546:Irving, Washington13353:Lambton, Ann K. S.13236:Goldman, Elizabeth12493:. Harper Collins.12372:(9 January 1997).12135:Smith, P. (1999).11863:Kecia Ali (2014).11346:on 2 February 201210968:"Slavery in Islam"10957:, p.100-101.10894:, pp.168–69.10521:"Prophet's Mosque"9894:2 May 2012 at the8045:, trans. and ed.,8033:Muhammad ibn Ishaq7837:, p.107–112.7483:, p.120-121.6307:. pp.33–34.6300:Islam and the West5952:(4 January 2024).5742:Howarth, Stephen.5416:, pp.170–1735330:, Vol. 5, no. 40375177:, and many others.5113:Relics of Muhammad4905:Criticism of Islam4811:Napoleon Bonaparte4750:

4625:Persian miniatures4614:

4505:

4491:; Muhammad is the4466:as-salamu 'alaykum4428:

4321:Qasim ibn Muhammad4274:Sawdah bint Zam'ah4246:

4208:Rashidun Caliphate4168:Roman–Persian Wars4125:

3922:

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3771:

3701:

3636:Kenana ibn al-Rabi3557:

3376:Salman the Persian3347:coitus interruptus3302:Abdullah ibn Ubayy3286:

3257:Meccan retaliation3241:Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf3223:Abdullah ibn Ubayy3138:— Quran (22:39–40)3047:3rd Wadi al-Qurra'2758:Muhammad in Medina2610:

2389:to the Abyssinian2324:Nadr ibn al-Harith2228:("purification").2212:, and almsgiving (2194:lower social class2170:, and adopted son2151:

2052:

2001:

1834:pre-Islamic Arabia1799:

1515:Meets and marries1342:

1237:

1146:

1126:Two folios of the1069:converted to Islam625:Medieval Christian417:Khātam al-Nabiyyīn171:24.46750; 39.6113926579:People from Mecca26544:Arab slave owners26461:

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25684:Utendi wa Tambuka25452:Sirah Rasul Allah25424:Muhammad at Mecca25263:Muhammad in Islam25211:

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25121:Philosophy of law25066:Conflict theories24906:The Spirit of Law24813:

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22179:Spontaneous order22169:Social alienation22018:Cultural heritage21979:Social philosophy21945:

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20479:(Water or fluid)20465:

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20452:Sidrat al-Muntahā20296:(Garlic or wheat)20226:

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19890:('The Afternoon')19881:('The Afternoon')19811:('The Mornings')19644:Conquest of Mecca19629:Battle of Khaybar19565:Event of Mubahala19561:(Night of Decree)19534:

19533:

19489:Bilād ar-Rāfidayn19432:Al-Ḥajar al-Aswad19395:

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19387:Salat (Synagogue)19340:Al-Masjid Al-Aqṣā19191:Al-Muqaddas Ṭuwan19024:Arabian Peninsula18999:Majmaʿ al-Baḥrayn18923:

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18653:Brothers of Yūsuf18524:Children of Ayyub18517:Wife of Abu Lahab18475:People of Fir'aun18466:(People of Jonah)18440:People of Shuaib18426:People of Ibrahim18359:People of Yathrib18259:

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17697:and Strong Will')17424:

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15763:Sunan al-Tirmidhi15594:Hassan ibn Thabit15588:Zayd ibn Harithah15419:

15418:

15292:Maria al-Qibtiyya15282:Zaynab bint Jahsh15238:

15237:

15023:978-0-691-22682-814999:978-9960-9919-0-014980:978-975-389-402-914954:978-90-04-09419-214873:978-0-7146-3142-414850:978-1-135-94085-014829:978-0-8076-0165-514805:cite encyclopedia14776:978-90-04-08114-714725:978-0-19-577307-114701:978-0-19-577277-714691:Muhammad at Mecca14677:978-0-415-57434-114642:978-1-61592-243-714629:(29 April 2011).14618:978-0-8276-0198-714594:978-0-231-07999-014572:978-0-486-42502-314545:978-90-04-08118-514524:978-9960-9678-9-914503:978-1-351-88676-514490:(19 April 2022).14479:978-1-4426-3673-614457:978-90-474-4195-314436:978-1-68137-493-214412:978-0-8130-3766-014391:978-0-521-82627-314372:978-0-19-533693-114353:978-1-5064-7388-814300:978-1-4798-0047-614276:978-0-19-530880-814252:978-0-19-532563-814241:. New York City:14225:978-0-8122-0995-214204:978-1-4742-8935-114183:978-0-8028-0754-014149:978-0-19-974746-714099:978-0-691-11553-514075:978-1-4384-1597-014054:978-0-253-11074-914033:978-1-135-17960-114009:978-3-11-067498-913985:978-0-19-161399-913964:978-0-7188-9522-813940:978-0-313-36026-813919:978-0-86078-703-713884:978-1-4391-2941-813860:978-1-61640-503-813836:978-0-521-64696-313821:Madelung, Wilferd13812:978-0-19-923503-213784:978-0-393-06790-313760:978-0-19-280310-813736:978-0-226-47107-513723:(15 March 2012).13712:978-0-521-51441-513691:978-0-521-77933-313669:978-90-04-37888-913644:978-90-90-00408-213620:978-1-000-58502-513596:978-1-108-78765-913572:978-0-19-027753-613537:978-1-85964-040-113516:978-1-85964-142-213490:978-0-19-636034-813465:978-0-691-00856-113441:978-0-19-157608-913417:978-0-674-01017-813391:978-0-521-29135-413370:978-0-521-29135-413340:978-0-226-34686-113316:978-1-59463-230-313281:Gottheil, Richard13272:978-0-313-32522-913262:The Rise of Islam13251:978-0-19-508240-113227:978-1-56663-340-613204:978-0-8154-1176-513180:978-0-521-59984-913134:978-0-8061-8250-613110:978-0-8061-3860-213086:978-1-85168-131-013073:(24 April 1997).13062:978-90-04-50234-513037:978-0-19-979413-313006:978-0-19-512558-012982:978-0-19-515713-012952:978-0-19-511234-412924:978-1-4744-2318-212892:978-0-7864-5642-012871:978-0-521-76725-512856:. New York City:12808:978-0-8264-4964-112801:. A&C Black.12756:978-0-674-73636-812735:978-0-19-955928-212707:978-0-631-21604-912683:978-1-139-82838-312662:978-90-04-41581-212641:978-0-292-70862-412616:978-0-304-70401-912592:978-0-521-24015-412564:978-90-04-12756-212549:Donzel, E. J. van12541:Bianquis, Thierry12500:978-0-06-115577-212479:978-0-520-38759-112451:978-1-136-48984-612430:978-0-520-97452-412409:978-0-88706-707-512396:(1 August 1987).12385:978-0-7914-3150-412361:978-9960-717-31-912342:978-0-674-04742-612329:(24 April 2017).12313:cite encyclopedia12288:978-1-930409-11-812257:978-1-903900-36-912232:978-1-4655-4662-312207:978-1-59884-655-312171:bahai-library.com12152:978-1-85168-184-611876:978-0-674-74448-611828:978-1-4918-2344-611749:978-1-61592-020-411629:978-0-253-35361-011593:978-1-4051-5401-711559:978-1-84520-741-011528:978-1-84885-168-911499:978-0-8122-4237-911466:978-0-8122-4237-911424:978-90-04-17589-111383:978-90-04-16861-911298:978-0-06-123135-311260:, pp.14–15.11232:978-90-04-08655-511219:"Images in Islam"11101:978-0-253-22206-010806:, pp.35–36.10786:978-1-118-05396-610776:Islam For Dummies10763:, p.182–83.10743:978-0-8078-5577-510709:978-0-275-98734-310678:978-0-470-18257-410647:978-90-04-14442-210613:978-0-470-18257-410576:978-1-930409-18-710506:978-983-52-0373-29946:978-0-19-636033-19931:Guillaume, Alfred9724:, p.139–40.9353:978-0-19-636034-89175:Ahmad, pp. 85–94.9071:, pp.36–37.8696:978-1-136-92113-18671:978-0-7456-5488-18183:, vol.1, p.176–7.8118:978-0-19-530991-18079:978-1-4384-2340-18038:Sirat Rasul Allah7387:, pp.37–39.7218:Sirat Rasul Allah7170:Sirat Rasul Allah6989:, p.50, 55.6787:978-0-415-96690-06549:978-1-86064-827-46479:978-1-118-63851-46433:978-1-118-63851-46348:978-90-04-15839-96271:978-0-521-88607-96140:978-0-7481-1951-66035:. Huffington Post5876:, pp.31–32.5779:978-1-872531-65-65752:978-0-8264-8034-75301:, pp.109–105253:histories recount5068:Glossary of Islam5016:Followers of the4803:Emmanuel Pastoret4758:Gottfried Leibniz4734:La vie de Mahomet4610:Jammu and Kashmir4549:peace be upon him4368:Muhammad in Islam4362:Islamic tradition4351:Zaynab bint Jahsh4345:at the market in4325:Maria al-Qibtiyya4262:Maria al-Qibtiyya4258:Rayhana bint Zayd4202:, large parts of4029:Al Mansur Qalawun3870:prohibiting Nasī'3695:, a 16th-century3678:Conquest of Mecca3672:Conquest of Mecca3611:Battle of Khaybar3507:Zayd ibn Harithah3456:Nu'aym ibn Mas'ud3411:was made against3311:polygyny in Islam3097:

3096:

2564:Akhnas ibn Shariq2545:Utbah ibn Rabi'ah2361:Alexander Romance2164:Ali ibn Abi Talib2149:visiting Muhammad2121:Waraqa ibn Nawfal2084:jump to his death1935:. Another uncle,1890:Himyarite kingdom1788:

1787:

1736:Conquest of Mecca1670:(called Yathrib)1401:Muhammad in Mecca1210:Early biographies1200:radiocarbon dated1074:The revelations (1065:Arabian Peninsula1019:prophets in Islam902:divinely inspired869:

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197:Wives of Muhammad25:Muhammad in Islam26611:

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23774:Balance of power23748:Social democracy23743:Social Darwinism23718:Multiculturalism23663:Environmentalism23638:Communitarianism23345:

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19937:First Pilgrimage19753:Times for prayer19696:Islamic calendar19624:Battle of Hunayn19598:

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13145:; Lewis, Brian;13138:

13114:

13090:

13066:

13045:

13017:

13015:

13013:

12986:

12970:

12956:

12941:(3rded.).12928:

12907:

12896:

12875:

12855:

12844:

12812:

12798:Six World Faiths12791:

12760:

12739:

12711:

12692:Brown, Daniel W.12687:

12666:

12645:

12624:

12601:Bennett, Clinton12596:

12575:

12573:

12571:

12532:

12509:Armstrong, Karen12504:

12483:

12459:

12434:

12413:

12389:

12365:

12346:

12322:

12316:

12308:

12292:

12262:

12261:

12243:

12237:

12236:

12218:

12212:

12211:

12193:

12187:

12186:

12184:

12182:

12163:

12157:

12156:

12132:

12126:

12125:

12124:. 11 March 2023.12114:

12108:

12102:

12096:

12089:

12083:

12077:

12071:

12065:

12059:

12053:

12047:

12041:

12035:

12029:

12020:

12014:

12005:

11999:

11990:

11984:

11978:

11972:

11966:

11963:

11957:

11950:

11944:

11938:

11932:

11926:

11920:

11917:

11911:

11908:Common Knowledge11904:

11898:

11891:

11885:

11884:

11860:

11854:

11853:

11839:

11833:

11832:

11812:

11806:

11800:

11794:

11786:

11780:

11779:, p.240–2.11774:

11761:

11760:

11740:Prometheus Books11731:

11725:

11718:

11712:

11706:

11700:

11693:

11687:

11677:

11671:

11658:

11647:

11644:

11638:

11637:

11611:

11602:

11601:

11574:

11568:

11567:

11543:

11537:

11536:

11510:

11504:

11503:

11487:

11477:

11471:

11470:

11454:

11444:

11433:

11432:

11406:

11400:

11399:

11397:

11395:

11367:

11356:

11355:

11353:

11351:

11342:. Archived from11326:

11315:

11314:

11312:

11310:

11282:

11276:

11270:

11261:

11255:

11249:

11248:

11246:

11244:

11214:

11203:

11197:

11191:

11185:

11179:

11173:

11167:

11161:

11155:

11152:

11146:

11136:

11130:

11124:

11118:

11117:

11115:

11113:

11085:

11079:

11073:

11067:

11061:

11055:

11054:. Vol. 7, p. 29511044:

11038:

11028:

11022:

11021:

11019:

11017:

11007:

10999:

10993:

10990:

10984:

10983:

10981:

10979:

10964:

10958:

10952:

10946:

10940:

10934:

10931:

10925:

10922:

10913:

10910:

10904:

10901:

10895:

10889:

10883:

10877:

10871:

10868:

10862:

10856:

10850:

10849:

10836:Subhani, Jafar.10833:

10827:

10816:

10807:

10801:

10795:

10794:

10770:

10764:

10758:

10752:

10751:

10724:

10718:

10717:

10693:

10687:

10686:

10662:

10656:

10655:

10631:

10622:

10621:

10594:

10585:

10584:

10556:

10550:

10543:

10537:

10536:

10534:

10532:

10527:on 23 March 201210517:

10511:

10510:

10492:

10486:

10480:

10471:

10468:

10462:

10456:

10450:

10444:

10438:

10432:

10426:

10420:

10414:

10408:

10402:

10396:

10390:

10384:

10378:

10372:

10366:

10365:, p.286–7.10360:

10354:

10348:

10342:

10336:

10330:

10324:

10318:

10317:, p.285–6.10312:

10306:

10300:

10294:

10288:

10282:

10276:

10270:

10264:

10258:

10252:

10246:

10240:

10234:

10228:

10222:

10216:

10210:

10201:M.A. al-Bakhit,10199:

10193:

10192:, p.192–3.10187:

10181:

10180:, p.274–5.10175:

10169:

10168:, p.192–4.10163:

10157:

10151:

10145:

10139:

10133:

10127:

10121:

10115:

10109:

10103:

10097:

10091:

10082:

10076:

10070:

10069:, p.263–4.10064:

10058:

10052:

10046:

10040:

10034:

10028:

10022:

10016:

10010:

10004:

9998:

9992:

9986:

9985:, p.320–1.9980:

9974:

9967:

9961:

9960:

9955:

9953:

9927:

9921:

9918:

9912:

9909:

9903:

9882:

9876:

9870:

9864:

9861:

9855:

9854:

9842:

9833:

9830:

9819:

9818:

9806:

9793:

9787:

9778:

9772:

9766:

9760:

9754:

9753:, p.283–4.9748:

9742:

9736:

9725:

9719:

9713:

9707:

9701:

9695:

9689:

9683:

9677:

9676:, p.282–3.9671:

9665:

9659:

9646:

9645:, p.200–1.9640:

9634:

9628:

9622:

9616:

9610:

9604:

9598:

9592:

9586:

9580:

9574:

9573:, p.251–2.9568:

9559:

9553:

9544:

9543:, p.265–6.9538:

9532:

9526:

9520:

9514:

9508:

9502:

9496:

9490:

9484:

9478:

9472:

9466:

9460:

9454:

9448:

9442:

9436:

9430:

9419:

9413:

9402:

9396:

9390:

9384:

9375:

9374:

9364:

9358:

9357:

9337:

9331:

9325:

9319:

9313:

9307:

9306:, p.211–2.9301:

9295:

9289:

9283:

9282:, p.147–8.9277:

9271:

9265:

9259:

9253:

9244:

9238:

9232:

9221:

9210:

9204:

9198:

9195:

9189:

9182:

9176:

9173:

9167:

9166:

9154:

9148:

9141:

9135:

9129:

9123:

9117:

9111:

9110:

9098:

9092:

9081:

9072:

9066:

9060:

9054:

9045:

9039:

9030:

9024:

9018:

9012:

9006:

9000:

8994:

8988:

8982:

8976:

8970:

8964:

8958:

8952:

8946:

8945:, p.127–8.8940:

8934:

8928:

8922:

8916:

8910:

8904:

8895:

8889:

8883:

8877:

8871:

8870:, p.120–3.8865:

8859:

8858:, p.113–4.8853:

8847:

8841:

8835:

8829:

8823:

8817:

8811:

8805:

8799:

8793:

8787:

8782:

8776:

8770:

8764:

8758:

8752:

8746:

8735:

8729:

8720:

8714:

8701:

8700:

8682:

8676:

8675:

8657:

8651:

8645:

8639:

8632:

8626:

8620:

8611:

8605:

8599:

8596:

8590:

8587:

8581:

8580:

8568:

8562:

8559:

8553:

8550:

8544:

8538:

8532:

8526:

8517:

8510:

8504:

8501:

8495:

8489:

8483:

8477:

8471:

8465:

8459:

8453:

8447:

8441:

8435:

8429:

8423:

8417:

8408:

8402:

8396:

8390:

8384:

8378:

8372:

8366:

8360:

8359:, p.186–7.8354:

8348:

8342:

8336:

8330:

8324:

8318:

8312:

8306:

8300:

8294:

8288:

8287:, p.245–7.8282:

8276:

8270:

8264:

8258:

8252:

8246:

8240:

8234:

8223:

8217:

8211:

8205:

8196:

8190:

8184:

8175:Sells, Michael.8173:

8167:

8158:Sells, Michael.8156:

8150:

8144:

8135:

8134:

8132:

8130:

8102:

8096:

8090:

8084:

8083:

8056:

8050:

8030:

8024:

8018:

8012:

8006:

8000:

7999:, p.145–6.7994:

7988:

7982:

7976:

7970:

7964:

7961:Holt et al. 19777958:

7952:

7946:

7937:

7931:

7922:

7916:

7910:

7904:

7898:

7892:

7886:

7880:

7874:

7868:

7862:

7856:

7850:

7849:, p.256–7.7844:

7838:

7832:

7826:

7823:

7817:

7816:

7780:

7771:

7765:

7752:

7751:, p.173–4.7746:

7740:

7734:

7728:

7725:Margoliouth 20107722:

7716:

7715:, p.167–8.7710:

7704:

7698:

7692:

7686:

7680:

7674:

7668:

7662:

7656:

7650:

7641:

7640:, p.460–1.7635:

7629:

7628:, p.344–5.7623:

7617:

7616:, p.125–7.7611:

7605:

7599:

7593:

7592:, p.125–6.7587:

7581:

7575:

7569:

7563:

7557:

7550:

7544:

7543:, p.342–3.7538:

7532:

7526:

7520:

7519:, p.113–4.7514:

7508:

7502:

7496:

7490:

7484:

7478:

7472:

7466:

7460:

7459:, p.35–36.7454:

7448:

7442:

7436:

7430:

7424:

7418:

7412:

7406:

7400:

7394:

7388:

7382:

7376:

7370:

7361:

7355:

7346:

7340:

7334:

7328:

7322:

7316:

7310:

7303:

7297:

7291:

7285:

7279:

7273:

7267:

7261:

7255:

7249:

7243:

7237:

7231:

7225:

7223:Life of Muhammad7210:

7204:

7198:

7192:

7186:

7177:

7175:Life of Muhammad7162:

7156:

7150:

7144:

7138:

7129:

7123:

7117:

7111:

7102:

7096:

7090:

7084:

7078:

7072:

7066:

7060:

7054:

7048:

7042:

7041:, p.79-81.7036:

7030:

7029:

7027:

7021:. Archived from7008:

6996:

6990:

6984:

6978:

6972:

6966:

6960:

6954:

6948:

6942:

6936:

6927:

6921:

6912:

6906:

6900:

6894:

6888:

6882:

6876:

6870:

6864:

6863:, p.38–46.6858:

6852:

6846:

6840:

6834:

6828:

6822:

6816:

6810:

6804:

6803:

6801:

6799:

6768:

6762:

6759:Gibb et al. 19866756:

6750:

6744:

6738:

6732:

6726:

6720:

6711:

6705:

6696:

6685:

6679:

6673:

6667:

6661:

6652:

6646:

6640:

6629:

6623:

6622:

6600:

6594:

6591:

6585:

6579:

6573:

6567:

6561:

6560:

6558:

6556:

6534:Rodinson, Maxime6530:

6524:

6508:

6502:

6496:

6490:

6489:

6488:

6486:

6453:

6444:

6443:

6442:

6440:

6407:

6396:

6390:

6384:

6383:

6339:Brill Publishers6325:

6319:

6318:

6291:

6282:

6281:

6280:

6278:

6245:

6239:

6238:

6206:

6197:

6191:

6185:

6184:

6166:

6160:

6154:

6148:

6147:

6124:

6118:

6117:

6093:

6087:

6081:

6072:

6066:

6060:

6054:

6045:

6044:

6042:

6040:

6031:(24 July 2015).6025:

6019:

6018:

6016:

6014:

6008:The Conversation5999:

5993:

5987:

5981:

5980:, p.18–19.5975:

5969:

5968:

5966:

5964:

5946:

5935:

5929:

5923:

5917:

5911:

5910:

5908:

5906:

5883:

5877:

5871:

5862:

5856:

5847:

5841:

5806:

5800:

5794:

5788:

5782:

5764:

5755:

5744:Knights Templar.5740:

5734:

5728:

5719:

5713:

5707:

5701:

5695:

5689:

5683:

5677:

5668:

5662:

5656:

5650:

5625:

5591:

5585:

5582:

5576:

5531:, pp.150–15511:

5505:

5491:

5485:

5456:

5450:

5447:

5445:

5443:

5437:Oxford Reference5366:

5360:

5357:

5339:

5333:

5324:, pp.112–45310:

5304:

5289:, pp.197–85283:, pp.173–45275:

5269:

5266:

5260:

5249:

5243:

5230:

5224:

5217:

5211:

5200:

5194:

5184:

5178:

5147:Prophet Muhammad5143:Messenger of God5135:

5093:Muhammad in film4762:natural religion4754:Guillaume Postel4746:Ten Commandments4618:Anatolian Seljuk4557:

4556:

4513:Qasidat al-Burda4493:Messenger of God4425:

4402:convert to Islam4339:Zayd ibn Haritha4315:) and two sons (4220:Muhammad's wives4121:

4115:

4109:

4078:

4017:Muhammad's tomb.3984:

3966:

3955:

3952:Sahih al-Bukhari3919:

3916:

3912:

3823:Khalid ibn Walid3821:. A group under3757:Battle of Hunayn3239:Back in Medina,3161:Asma bint Marwan3139:

2942:Dhu al-'Ushairah2917:

2903:

2896:

2889:

2880:

2879:

2694:Mus'ab ibn Umayr2602:Dome of the Rock2592:Isra' and Mi'raj2586:Isra' and Mi'raj2576:Mut'im ibn 'Adiy2395:Aṣḥama ibn Abjar2391:Kingdom of Aksum2046:in the mountain1990:

1987:

1981:Jami al-Tawarikh1866:

1863:

1860:

1857:

1854:

1780:

1773:

1766:

1760:

1666:, emigration to1638:(his uncle) die1448:

1420:

1389:Wilferd Madelung1340:

1337:

1297:

1295:

1282:

1280:

1144:

1141:

1132:early manuscript1049:Islamic calendar982:

950:

898:Islamic doctrine883:

880:"praiseworthy";879:

874:

864:

862:

854:

853:

850:

849:

846:

843:

840:

837:

834:

831:

828:

807:

800:

793:

777:

776:

775:

767:Islam portal765:

764:

763:

747:History of Islam552:First revelation435:

434:

425:

424:

406:

398:

397:

380:

372:

371:

349:ʿAbd al-Muṭṭalib333:

325:

324:

309:

250:Othernames185:

184:

182:

181:

180:

178:

173:

172:

167:

162:

159:

158:

157:

154:

144:, Medina, Arabia142:Prophet's Mosque118:

116:

87:

84:

63:Prophet's Mosque57:

36:

35:

26621:

26620:

26614:

26613:

26612:

26610:

26609:

26608:

26569:Miracle workers26464:

26463:

26462:

26457:

26456:

26451:

26441:

26439:

26407:

26402:Je suis Charlie26365:

26322:

26320:Jyllands-Posten26313:

26256:

26240:Song of Songs 526148:

26129:Muslim Massacre26068:

26018:

25926:

25817:

25809:

25779:

25774:Visionary Heads25749:

25721:

25717:Ka'b ibn Zuhayr25689:

25492:

25445:Qisas al-Anbiya25331:

25328:

25314:

25251:

25242:

25212:

25207:

25194:

25183:Totalitarianism25044:

25039:

25029:

25019:

25009:

24999:

24989:

24979:

24969:

24959:

24949:

24939:

24929:

24919:

24909:

24899:

24889:

24879:

24869:

24859:

24856:Treatise on Law24849:

24839:

24829:

24809:

24467:

24461:

24200:

24194:

24080:

24074:

23993:

23896:

23882:State of nature23877:Social contract23857:Ordered liberty23845:Noblesse oblige23762:

23596:

23525:

23354:

23349:

23319:

23314:

23301:

23227:Critical theory23205:

23200:

23190:

23180:

23170:

23160:

23150:

23140:

23130:

23120:

23110:

23100:

23090:

23080:

23070:

23060:

23050:

23030:

22708:

22702:

22500:

22494:

22443:

22372:

22279:

22231:Budapest School22219:

22008:Cosmopolitanism21981:

21976:

21946:

21941:

21921:

21919:

21903:

21830:Cultural Muslim21801:

21768:

21724:Other religions21714:

21710:

21692:

21627:

21594:

21541:

21484:

21482:Islamic studies21478:

21460:

21311:

21256:

21233:

21180:

21125:

21124:

21097:

21046:Moral teachings20989:

20971:

20945:Nation of Islam20906:Twelver Shi'ism20853:

20819:Religious texts20813:

20731:Early conquests20714:

20696:

20648:

20568:

20557:

20551:

20521:

20516:

20502:

20461:

20399:

20393:

20316:

20277:

20232:

20218:

20192:

20156:

20129:

20103:

20102:Mentioned idols20097:

20059:

20057:

20051:

19996:Ṣuḥuf-i Ibrāhīm19959:

19940:

19931:Laylat al-Mabit19914:

19866:('The Evening')19855:Dulūk ash-Shams19823:('The Morning')19817:('The Morning')19754:

19748:

19719:

19694:

19688:

19677:Days of battles19648:

19602:

19592:

19553:Incident of Ifk19545:

19530:

19521:Palestine River19391:

19360:Masjid al-Dirar19290:

19284:

19231:

19179:

19171:

19026:

19022:

19016:

18953:'Blessed' Land'18934:

18911:

18775:

18769:

18750:Umayyad Dynasty18711:

18697:

18658:Lot's daughters18642:

18641:('People of the18640:

18632:

18584:(people of Hud)18570:

18556:

18548:(Gog and Magog)18431:People of Ilyas18384:

18382:

18376:

18309:Jesus' apostles18286:Aṣḥāb al-Jannah18270:

18251:

18197:

18191:

18155:of Moses' time)18123:

18099:Wise, pious man18086:Wife of Pharaoh18078:Imraʾat Firʿawn18065:Aaron and Moses18064:

18058:

18014:(Benjamin) and18003:

17997:

17915:Family of Noah17880:

17861:

17824:

17779:

17750:Mūsā Kalīmullāh17696:

17694:

17692:

17682:

17608:ibn Zakariyyā (17437:

17416:

17387:

17344:

17295:

17257:Ar-Rūḥ al-Qudus17247:('The Spirit')17221:

17199:Kirāman Kātibīn17194:Harut and Marut17171:Angels of Hell17147:

17082:

16969:

16935:

16924:

16911:

16905:

16875:

16870:

16843:

16838:

16820:

16802:

16784:

16766:

16748:

16730:

16712:

16688:

16679:

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